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Arts & Communication Cultural exchange and decorative motifs in 12 -century
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Lanka, which emerged after the fall of the Anuradhapura expression. At Sarnath, the art represented the social and
Kingdom, flourished between the 11 and 13 centuries, spiritual life of Indian society. On its part, Polonnaruwa,
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reaching its zenith under King Parakramabahu I in the strategically situated between the trade ports of Mannar and
12 century. Polonnaruwa’s rational and systematic Trincomalee, leveraged its favorable location to construct an
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urban development began in the late 10 century under effective state within a formidable trade network.
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Chola rule, though its initial conceptualization can be Despite differing religious ideologies associated with
traced back to King Datopathissa II (659 – 667) during the rise of Angkor Wat, Sarnath, and Polonnaruwa, these
the Anuradhapura period. Sarnath, located in northern entities emerged within shared cultural boundaries by
India, emerged as a prominent center of learning as early Buddhism and Hinduism. This common religious base
as the fifth century BCE. It flourished under the patronage provides a vantage ground for comparing artistic styles and
of rulers such as Emperor Ashoka and the Pala dynasty. architectural forms (Figure 2). 8
Angkor Wat, situated in Cambodia, was constructed in the
early 12 century under King Suryavarman II as both a The dissemination of Hinduism from its origins in
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temple dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu and a symbol of India to various parts of Southeast Asia and East Asia
the Khmer Empire’s imperial supremacy. This architectural is evidenced by the cultural homogeneity and regional
marvel epitomizes the grandeur and religious devotion adaptations observable at these three sites. This diffusion
that characterized the empire during its peak. highlights the multifaceted roles and functions of
This research focuses on the decorative motifs Hinduism in shaping local practices and its integration and
found in carvings at Angkor Wat of the Khmer Empire, reinterpretation within diverse cultural contexts across
the Dhammika Stupa and Mulagandha Kuti Vihara at these regions (Figure 3).
Sarnath, and the Hatadage, Watadage, Gal Viharaya, and 3. The visual material and decorative motifs
Baddhasima Prasadaya in Polonnaruwa. While these
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sites are deeply rooted in Buddhist traditions, they were Debala Mitra’s research on Sarnath underscores the
significantly influenced by both Hinduism and Mahayana spiritual significance of motifs such as lotus blossoms,
Buddhism. Sarnath played a pivotal role in the emergence fauna, and narrative depictions from the Buddha’s life.
of early Buddhist art and intellectual development, These elements not only embody Buddhist doctrinal
whereas Polonnaruwa reflects the distinct characteristics teachings but also reflect the influence of indigenous
of Theravada Buddhist practices. cultural traditions. Furthermore, Mitra emphasizes the
profound impact of the Gupta period on Sarnath’s artistic
The analysis of non-representational decorative motifs
is inherently subjective, which can introduce biases output, where motifs conveyed religious themes while
encapsulating the political and economic conditions
during interpretation. Scholars from different disciplines that facilitated their creation and dissemination. The
often hold varying views on the origins, meanings, and analysis of these motifs offers essential insights into the
implications of the decorative motifs found in works visual articulation of religious and cultural values within
of art. This study, however, diverges from traditional
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approaches that view art as an expression of political, the region’s artistic traditions. Similarly, Angkor Wat,
the iconic Cambodian temple complex central to the
cultural, and social conditions. Instead, it focuses on the Khmer Empire, is renowned for its intricate bas-reliefs
motifs themselves, without emphasizing the origins of the and decorative motifs, which harmoniously integrate
styles or their meanings. Other limitations to the research Hindu and Buddhist iconography, showcasing a synthesis
include the impact of tropical climatic conditions on these 10
sites from the 12 century to the present and changes of religious and artistic influences. Eleanor Mannikka’s
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resulting from historical conflicts. thorough examination of the motifs at Angkor Wat
highlights their dual function: articulating spiritual
2. Materials and methods reverence and asserting governmental power. Mannikka
argues that these motifs served to validate the divine right
2.1. Methodology of Khmer monarchs by illustrating a cosmic hierarchy
Angkor, Sarnath, and Polonnaruwa form a triangle of case that linked the sovereigns with divine entities. The styles
studies that flag how shared cultural influences across the of arts that adorned Angkor Wat also reflect significant
region created a fertile ground for bilateral relations and influences from Indian cultural traditions, a connection
cultural contributions in the 12 century. The expansive reach Mannikka attributes to extensive trade links and cultural
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of the Angkor Empire in Southeast Asia, shaped by Buddhist exchange between the Khmer Empire and India. This
traditions akin to those in North India, specifically Sarnath, relationship further reflects the significant economic and
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underscores the significance of art as a significant means of political factors shaping Khmer art.

Volume 3 Issue 3 (2025) 3 doi: 10.36922/ac.4205