Page 12 - IJPS-11-5

International Journal of
Population Studies Human behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic

Levin et al. (2022) reported that at a median of 6 months disinfectant like Purell. However, these practices can
after use, Evusheld reduced infection risk by 82.8% induce irritant contact dermatitis, particularly in
(95% CI: 65.8–91.4%). A meta-analysis by Glhoom et al. healthcare professionals, who often seek out skin-friendly
(2024) similarly found that Evusheld reduced COVID-19 cleansers to minimize irritation. In regard to hard surfaces,
symptomatic infection by 77%. Although it was effective cleaning with a disinfectant such as bleach or Virusend not
against Omicron BA.1 and BA.2, later Omicron subvariants only kills the virus on the surface but also provides lasting
rendered it ineffective. protection for the surface.

In August 2024, Invivyd, the manufacturer of Viral infection does not occur through the drinking of
Pemgarda, reported its phase III trial results. Through the water, as one cannot get infected by ingesting solid foods
first 6 months, there was an 84% infection risk reduction. or liquids. However, swimming pools can be the source of
Between months 7–12, there was a 64% risk reduction an infection. Brown et al. (2021) reported that to meet the
of symptomatic COVID in immunocompetent adults. United Kingdom’s swimming pool regulations, infectious
However, variants KP.3.1.1 and XEC significantly impacted SARS-CoV-2 levels must be reduced by at least three orders
Pemgarda neutralization rates. Subsequent studies reported of magnitude. A pH of no more than 7.4 and free chlorine
the same reduced effectiveness. above 1.5 parts per million achieved that goal.

6.1.2. Povidone iodine nasal spray or gargle COVID-19 primarily spreads through small, respiratory
droplets. Hence, removing them from the air would serve
Several pre-pandemic studies reported that 0.5–1% as another method of eliminating the virus before it comes
povidone iodine nasal spray or gargle killed all viruses into contact with humans. There are several ways to achieve
in the nose or mouth. Fujii et al. (2006) reported that this. One way is using ultraviolet light. Liu and Shan (2023)
treatment of SARS-CoV-1 with povidone iodine reported that ultraviolet light kills viruses by disrupting
products for 2 min reduced viral infectivity from 1.17 their RNA. Hence, inexpensive ultraviolet systems can
6
× 10 tissue culture infectious dose to below detectable be installed in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
levels. Pelletier et al. (2020) reported that all evaluated heating/cooling systems to inactivate viral RNA using
concentrations of nasal antiseptics and oral rinse human-safe, electromagnetic waves. However, ionization
antiseptics completely inactivated SARS-CoV-2 after 60 does not appear to be effective at killing SARS-CoV-2.
s. Moreover, povidone iodine nasal spray resulted in an
8.57 times reduction of COVID-19 hospitalization and Installing high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)-14
death rates (Baxter et al., 2024). filters is another method which is eliminating the virus
from the air. The SARS-CoV-2 virus is about 0.1 μm in
6.2. NPIs diameter. HEPA-14 filters can remove at least 99.97% of
NPIs are techniques to avoid SARS-CoV-2 infection airborne particles that are 0.3 microns (μm) or larger in
that are not based on vaccines or therapeutics. They size. Fortunately, if the air is passed multiple times through
are particularly important for immunocompromised a HEPA-14 filter, it will remove the 0.1 μm SARS-CoV-2
individuals. Furthermore, diabetic individuals utilized particles from the air. Ueki et al. (2022) reported that an
air cleaner with the HEPA filter removed SARS-CoV-2
them more than the population average.
from the air at virus capture ratios of 85.38%, 96.03%, and
There are two types of NPIs that keep viral particles >99.97% at 1, 2, and 7.1 ventilation volumes, respectively.
from entering the body. First, elimination of SARS-CoV-2 Another important factor to consider is ventilation.
before human contact by killing the virus on surfaces, on During the pandemic, there have been more than 2,000
the skin, in liquids, or in the air. Second, avoid COVID-19 documented “superspreading” events, in which a single,
infection by staying away from infected people or animals infected person quickly infected many others. Almost all
and/or their viral particles.
involved large groups in poorly ventilated indoor spaces.
6.2.1. Elimination of SARS-CoV-2 before human Morawska et al. (2024) reported key lessons learned from
contact the COVID pandemic on ventilation’s role as an effective
means against airborne pathogen transmission. The
There are several aspects to consider when eliminating authors highlighted the longstanding historical connection
the virus before it comes into contact with humans. This between air quality and infectious diseases. Moreover,
eradication encompasses the skin, hard surfaces, liquids, Busato and Cavallini (2023) demonstrated the power of
and air. ventilation systems in school rooms. Interestingly, they
Killing the virus on the skin is relatively easy. Wash only required 1/3 the energy to keep the Italian classrooms
it with a good soap for 20 s or use an alcohol-containing heated compared to open windows (Figure 4).

Volume 11 Issue 5 (2025) 6 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJPS025110040