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Sizhe Liu and Wei Zhang

mainstream society (Gee, Walsemann, and Takeuchi, 2010). Many Asian-American
immigrants view English proficiency as an essential tool for their social adaptation
and socio-economic mobility in American society. However, it is hard to learn a new
language while simultaneously assimilating into a new culture and learning new role
relations (Yeh, 2003). Based on nationally representative data, several studies have
examined the association between English proficiency and mental health among Asian-
Americans. Zhang and colleagues (2012) found that Asian American immigrants with
limited English proficiency show higher levels of psychological distress than their US-
born counterparts. Another study (Kim, Worley, Allen et al., 2011) revealed that older
Asian immigrants with English proficiency show lower rates of lifetime and 12 month
disorders compared to those with limited English proficiency. Our study considers
immigration at a young age and limited English proficiency as stressors and examines
their relationships with mental health problems.

1.3 Religious Involvement and Mental Health Outcomes

Over the past two decades, a large numbers of studies have focused on the relationship
between religion and health (see review by Koenig, 2015). Among these studies,
many have examined the impact of different dimensions of religious involvement on
a series of psychological and mental health outcomes based on clinical, community
and population samples. Evidence, from both cross-sectional and longitudinal
studies, suggests that favorable mental health outcomes, including higher levels of
psychological well-being, lower levels of distress and depression, and lower risk of
psychiatric disorders and suicidal behaviors (Bonelli and Koenig, 2013), could be
attributed to aspects of religious involvement.
The most convincing evidence came from the comprehensive review articles and
studies employing metal-analyses. Gartner and colleagues (1991) reviewed over 200
articles and found positive linkages between religiosity and desirable mental health
indicators in most studies. In the Handbook of Religion and Health, Koenig and
colleagues (2001) summarized more than 1,600 studies that examine the effects of
various aspects of religion and a set of indicators of mental health problem. They found
that more than half of the studies suggest a significant protective effect of religion.
Employing meta-analysis, Hackney and Sanders (2003) examined 34 related studies
from 1990 to 2001 and confirmed an overall significant and positive relationship
between religiosity and mental health indicators (r=0.10). Bonelli and Koenig (2013)
examined 43 articles that published in the top 25% of psychiatry and neurology
journals from 1990–2010 and revealed that 31 of them document the beneficial
effect of religion on psychological well-being. Based on these empirical findings, we
hypothesize that religious involvement is positively related to psychological well-
being and may reduce the risk of mental health problems.
1.4 Religious Involvement as the Stress Buffer

One of the major stressors for immigrants is related to the loss of social support. The
most common forms of such loss are the lack of family ties and close relationships as
their family and friends are often left behind in home countries (Zhang, Fang, Wu et
al., 2013). These are viewed to result in a weak social network for the initial period of
immigration. In the absence of social connection, individuals often have difficulties in
making decisions and judgments, thus become anxious and uncertain about their social
status roles in the community (Smart and Smart, 1995). Social support and family
ties are also associated with a sense of personal control and social identity (Berkman,
Glass, Brissette, et al., 2000; Cohen, 1988; Thoits, 2011). An environment that lacks
them may negatively affect both the mentality and ability to cope with stressors and
increase the risk of psychological disorders as many studies have indicated (Aneshensel
and Frerichs, 1982; Chung, Fred, Ortiz, et al., 2008; Rogler, Cortes, and Malgady,
1991; Smart and Smart, 1995).

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