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facing 3D printing technology in the biomedical manufacturing field (Table 3):

adhesive selection, suboptimal product mechanical properties, limited dimensional

accuracy, powder agglomeration, nozzle/distribution size constraints, material
limitations, texture/color variations, material longevity, fit/design customization, layer

height issues, and construction failures. Product management areas like employee

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training, pricing, cybersecurity, and intellectual property also require attention .
Cost-effectiveness and personalization drive 3D printing's adoption in traditional

manufacturing, healthcare, and biological research. Particularly SLA—characterized

by layer-by-layer UV patterning in photopolymer resins—has gained considerable

traction for its cost-effectiveness, high resolution, and ease of use 57,58 . Shafique et al.

59 demonstrated that low-cost liquid crystal display (LCD) 3D printing achieves 50 μm

resolution at faster build rates than conventional methods, enabling scalable production

of organ-on-a-chip devices. In summary, the integration of 3D printing with tumor

microfluidics substantially reduces manufacturing costs and compresses design-to-

validation cycles from months to weeks while reducing material waste by 40-60%
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compared to traditional fabrication . Despite these advances, limitations remain:
current 3D printing struggles with microstructures <100 µm, and restricted

manufacturing precision 60,61 and insufficient transparency 62 impede sample

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visualization (Figure 2).

3. Advanced Tumor Modeling: Integrating 3D Bioprinting and Microfluidic

Technologies

Conventional static culture systems often inadequately capture the intricate

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complexity and dynamic nature of TME . Although microfluidic technology has
emerged as a promising solution through the development of tumor-on-chip platforms

that overcome these limitations, challenges remain regarding cost-effectiveness and

scalable production. The integration of 3D printing with microfluidics has consequently

become crucial for engineering biomimetic tumor models 64,65 . This synergistic
approach offers distinct advantages: microfluidic systems enable continuous perfusion

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