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Arts & Communication Lianhuanhua during Mao’s era

focused on three areas: the artistic styles and contributions political attitudes of future leaders, individuals currently
of illustrators, the adaptation of classic works into residing in rural areas were excluded from the sample.
lianhuanhua, and the books’ market value as collectibles. This research examines how lianhuanhua contributed
Certain editions have become highly valuable, occasionally to the development of political consciousness and identity
surpassing ancient texts in price and fueling a niche among children in Mao’s China, shedding light on its
cultural industry centered on their collection and auction. significance as a tool for ideological indoctrination during
Despite this growing niche interest, research on the a pivotal period in the nation’s history.
imagery, text, and communicative strategies of lianhuanhua
– especially its role in linking children’s literature with 2. The image and text of lianhuanhua:
political education during Mao’s era – remains scarce. A unique series of illustrated books for
Scholars often categorize lianhuanhua either as propaganda children
artifacts or collectible items, likening them to Mao Zedong
badges or quotes. This perspective overlooks their status During Mao’s era, lianhuanhua emerged as the most
as commodities within Mao-era cultural markets, where affordable type of book, making it highly accessible to
their exchangeable nature shaped their design, content, the general public. The standard format measured 787 ×
and function as tools for political education. 1092 mm, with pages printed on both sides. Approximately
80% of the pages featured black-and-white illustrations –
Recent studies on lianhuanhua have primarily focused either line drawings or stills from films – accompanied
on its literary and visual aspects, neglecting its importance by corresponding text. Covers typically included a color
as a vehicle for disseminating political ideology. The illustration, while the pages were printed on basic, unglued
use of images to transmit political ideas has long been a paper. Thicker editions used glue binding, with the title and
topic of interest in communication studies, especially publisher printed on the spine, whereas thinner editions
in understanding how television, films, and pictorials were stapled and lacked spine text.
convey ideological messages. Of particular note is the Historian Zhao Shengliang contends that lianhuanhua
way children’s political understanding can be influenced did not originate during Mao’s era but can be traced back to
by the interplay of images and text, demonstrating that the Northern Wei dynasty (420 – 589) of the Northern and
ideological formation often begins in childhood through Southern dynasties. Early examples include the Buddhist
reading experiences. Research has shown that children frescoes of Dunhuang along the Silk Road, where religious
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frequently interpret political concepts through imagery. stories were depicted on walls to convey Buddhist teachings.
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In this context, children’s literature plays a crucial This tradition of storytelling through images parallels the use
role and has been widely recognized as a medium for of medieval Hebrew-illustrated Bibles, which served as tools
political indoctrination across both Eastern and Western for religious instruction in contexts where literacy was limited.
traditions. This theoretical framework provides the basis
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for examining lianhuanhua’s role in shaping the “new In China, literacy remained a privilege of the few well
citizen” during Mao’s era. into the 20 century, with 80% of the population illiterate
th
in 1949. The heavily illustrated nature of lianhuanhua
1
This study examines 400 lianhuanhua books from
Mao’s era as primary sources to explore their role in
connecting children’s literature with political education 1 There has always been debate regarding the illiteracy rate in
during that period. The analysis focuses on the imagery, China in 1949. According to Mikhail Vasilyevich Zimyanin’s
text, and communication strategies employed in these report to the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist
works. In addition, questionnaires were distributed to 500 Party, the illiteracy rate at that time reached 90%. Other
statistics suggest that more than 80% of the population was
respondents, and in-depth interviews were conducted with illiterate or semi-illiterate (For related discussion, please refer
a selected group to assess the influence of lianhuanhua on to the CIA files, file No.RDP80-00809a000700110682-1/
shaping political perceptions. RDP80-00809A000700110248-3). The Ministry of Education’s

The 500 respondents were selected from 19 provinces CPC Committee in China, in its “Report on the Request
and four municipalities (Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and for Further Development of Rural Illiteracy and Part-time
Education” (November 2, 1959), stated that “the illiteracy
Chongqing) across China. The sample comprised 228 males rate among young and middle-aged adults was over 80% in
and 272 females, with birth years spanning from 1945 to the early days of liberation.” When accounting for the elderly,
1972. This timeframe captures the period during which weak, sick, and women, the proportion was even higher.
lianhuanhua played an active role in shaping the political Based on these figures, it is reasonable to conclude that the
consciousness of young readers, concluding in 1976 with nationwide illiteracy rate exceeded 80% in 1949, which aligns
the end of Mao’s era. To better understand its impact on the with various statistical findings.

Volume 3 Issue 3 (2025) 2 doi: 10.36922/ac.5738