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Rudi, et al.

CWAs in numerous incidents. The 1994 Tokyo subway major groups include nerve agents, blister agents, blood
sarin attack, orchestrated by the Aum Shinrikyo cult, agents, and choking agents. Nerve agents such as sarin
killed 12 people, permanently harmed thousands, and (GB), soman (GD), tabun (GA), and VX, which belong
left a deep psychological impact on the survivors. to the group of organophosphorus compounds that work
3,4
Similarly, the 2017 assassination of Kim Jong-nam at through irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase,
Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA 2) using cause respiratory failure and eventual death. These
7-9
the nerve agent VX highlighted the continuous threat are highly toxic agents, and for that reason, direct
CWAs pose even in civilian spaces. 3,4 experimentation with this chemical has huge safety and
CWAs are highly toxic and have thus been included regulatory concerns. Therefore, developing analytical
under the category of Weapons of Mass Destruction due methods requires structural simulants as they share key
to their great potential for mass casualties and devastating physiochemical properties with CWAs but significantly
impacts on human health and the environment. These pose a lower risk. 10-12
agents are designed to incapacitate, injure, or kill, and Dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) is an
their exposure might lead to symptoms from respiratory organophosphorus compound commonly used as a
distress, seizures, paralysis to even death, depending on simulant for CWAs in OPCW PT. Figure 1 shows the
the agent and level of exposure of the organisms. The chemical structure of the DMMP. A major component
1
most toxic CWAs include highly potent inhibitors of of the nerve agent simulants is DMMP, a surrogate
acetylcholinesterase, such as nerve agents, such as sarin compound that replicates the chemical properties of
and VX, which build up acetylcholine at synapses and nerve agents such as sarin and soman. Although it
result in lethal respiratory failure. For example, VX is represents the class of highly toxic organic compounds,
lethal even at a dermal dose of 6 – 10 mg, with death DMMP has a relatively low toxicity but is structurally
following in minutes if left untreated. 5 similar to sarin. DMMP has been employed as a
13
In response to these threats, the international spiking agent in several OPCW PT rounds, including
community has established stringent measures to the 52 OPCW PT, making it a relevant and practical
nd
control and eliminate CWAs. The Chemical Weapons choice for this research. The growing body of research
Convention (CWC), which came into force on April on novel sample preparation and analytical techniques
29, 1997, is a landmark treaty administered by the for CWAS detection is evident in the increasing number
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons of scientific publications in this field. Over the past
(OPCW). The CWC mandates the prohibition of the 20 years, an average of 140 scientific outputs per year
development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, and has focused on the detection and analysis of CWAs,
use of chemical weapons. As of 2020, 193 countries, reflecting the continuous advancement in this field.
representing over 98% of the global population, have OPCW PT samples often include a variety of materials,
ratified the treaty, reinforcing its status as one of the such as water, soil, and organic matrices, spiked with
most universally adhered to disarmament treaties. low concentrations of CWAs or chemicals related to the
Despite these international agreements, ensuring CWC. These tests require precise sample preparation
compliance and preventing the illegal use of CWAs and analysis, as spiked analytes are frequently present
remains a critical challenge. The OPCW plays a pivotal in trace amounts and mixed with complex matrices that
role in overseeing compliance with the CWC through its are deliberately designed to interfere with detection.
Designated Laboratories (DLs), which are responsible Laboratories must use at least two independent analytical
for the off-site analysis of CWC-related chemicals methods – one of which must be a spectrometric method
obtained during Challenge Inspections or Alleged Use – to ensure reliable identification. Analytical methods
Investigations. These laboratories must demonstrate such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-
their ability to accurately detect and identify CWAs in MS), combined with advanced extraction techniques,
complex matrices by participating in OPCW proficiency
testing (PT), a rigorous interlaboratory testing regime
conducted twice a year. Participation in OPCW PT
6
is crucial for laboratories seeking or maintaining DL
status, as it evaluates their ability to perform accurate
and reliable CWAs analysis.
CWAs are normally classified based on their Figure 1. Chemical structure of dimethyl
chemical nature and physiological action. Some of the methylphosphonate

Volume 22 Issue 2 (2025) 44 doi: 10.36922/ajwep.8196