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Al-Juthery, et al.

require lower dosages than conventional fertilizers nano-biofertilizers is a significant biosafety concern.
and that over-application can be harmful or Many plant growth-promoting bacteria used in
counterproductive. Educational programs should also biofertilizers naturally harbor ARGs, sometimes
address safe handling practices, compatibility with located on mobile genetic elements such as plasmids.
other agrochemicals, and integration into existing The large-scale application of such bacteria could
fertilization schedules. introduce ARGs into the soil microbiome, where
Governments and agricultural extension agencies in horizontal gene transfer to native microbes or even
some countries have begun implementing such initiatives. opportunistic pathogens may occur. Studies have
In India, for example, field demonstrations and “farmer shown that strains such as Pseudomonas fluorescens
field days” for nano-urea have been organized, allowing can carry resistance to antibiotics such as tetracycline,
growers to observe yield improvements with reduced and repeated soil exposure may increase the abundance
fertilizer input. This participatory approach builds trust of resistant microbes. Although nano-components
and understanding through firsthand observation and themselves do not cause resistance, nanoparticles may
practical experience. create stress conditions that potentially facilitate gene
exchange. To mitigate this, researchers recommend
8.2.3. Benefits of awareness rigorous screening of microbial strains using molecular
When farmers understand the value of diagnostics or genome sequencing to ensure they
nano-biofertilizers – such as reduced input costs and lack transferable ARGs. Regulatory agencies should
improved productivity – they are more likely to adopt consider incorporating ARG risk assessments into the
the technology. For smallholder and resource-poor biofertilizer approval process. While current guidelines
farmers, special attention must be given to affordability, often focus on pathogen exclusion, ARG monitoring
appropriate packaging sizes (e.g., small sachets), and remains largely unaddressed. Therefore, responsible
clear labeling (preferably using pictorial instructions). development of nano-biofertilizers must include
Training modules should cover topics such as identifying biosafety evaluations of microbial inputs to prevent
deficiency symptoms, appropriate timing and dosage, safe unintended contributions to antimicrobial resistance. 84,85
storage practices, and long-term benefits for soil health.
9. Effect of fertilizer type and concentration on
8.2.4. Challenges in developing countries soil health
Weak extension infrastructure and skepticism toward
new technologies can hinder effective outreach. Farmers Soil is one of the most important components of the
may ask: “Why switch from manure or urea to something agricultural environment. It serves as the medium in
unfamiliar?” To address this, the involvement of which plants grow and obtain nutrients and water. With
trusted local figures – such as lead farmers, agricultural the increasing demand for agricultural production,
officers, or cooperatives – is vital. Furthermore, training fertilizers have become essential to replenish nutrients
helps prevent misuse (e.g., over-application), ensuring lost from the soil. However, the type and concentration
responsible and efficient use of nano-biofertilizers. of fertilizer used play a significant role in determining
The successful adoption of nano-biofertilizers the extent to which both soil and plants benefit, as well
depends significantly on farmer education and training. as the broader environmental impact. Healthy soil is
Without this foundation, innovations risk remaining the foundation of productive farming. It supports plant
limited to research trials and failing to reach millions of growth, regulates water, filters pollutants, and sustains
potential beneficiaries. This section introduces a socio- biodiversity. However, maintaining soil health is a
economic dimension to the review, by emphasizing growing concern as modern agriculture relies heavily
that technological advancement must be accompanied on fertilizers. While fertilizers help boost crop yields,
by effective knowledge transfer, particularly in regions their type and concentration can significantly influence
where yield gaps are wide and the need for sustainable soil vitality over time.
agriculture is most pressing. The impact of fertilizer type and concentration on
soil health cannot be overlooked. Although fertilizers
8.3. Antibiotic resistance gene transfer risk from are intended to enhance agricultural productivity, their
microbial components unplanned or excessive use can negatively affect both
The potential risk of antibiotic resistance gene the environment and long-term soil fertility. Striking a
(ARG) transfer from the microbial components of balance in fertilizer application and choosing appropriate

Volume 22 Issue 3 (2025) 26 doi: 10.36922/AJWEP025160123