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International Journal of Bioprinting 3D printing and 3D-printed electronics in smart drug delivery devices

steel electrode, which is then electroplated with gold for coupled with drug delivery modules, the implanted
the detection of DNA hybridization. They have shown biosensors will possibly eliminate opportunistic infections
that the 3D-printed electrode is superior against a non- prior to their growth and enable an automated, on-
complementary DNA target and capable of achieving a demand closed loop systems that can increase the efficacy
detection range of 1–1000 nM [115] . of an intervention . 3D printing also allows creation of
[46]
other kinds of drug delivery devices entirely fitting our
3.3. Advantages of using 3D-printed electronics in needs. A microneedle system integrated with MEMS has
smart drug delivery devices shown potential for transdermal insulin delivery and has
Technological advances in smart drug delivery systems a promising scope for evolution of medical devices for
are being propelled by impressive developments in the personalized treatment . A programmable wirelessly
[40]
synergistic integration of 3D printing technologies with controlled microsystem with a refillable microreservoir
soft bioelectronics. This paves the way for a personalized, and a phase-changing peristaltic micropump as a single
direct therapeutic and diagnostic intervention. Integrating embodiment has shown promising results for delivering
electronic devices into the body enables remote health drug into murine inner ear . The structure was fabricated
[48]
monitoring, management as well as data collection with a dental resin to minimize inflammatory or immune
for evaluation of results. Flexible electronics plays an response and implanted transdermally. This opens up the
increasingly important role in drug delivery. Miniature possibility of building DDDs by choosing a raw material
systems offer unique advantages with high response time, from the wide spectrum of biocompatible materials that
stylized manipulation of complex structures, low power can be placed into the human body either permanently
consumption, reduced material waste, higher packing or temporarily to support functions [124,125] . It also enables
efficiency, and minimal cost [117,118] . 3D-printed microheaters scalability for use ranging from small animal models to
are beneficial due to their small size, mass-fabrication direct clinical translation [126] .
capacity, good mechanical stability and performance [119] .
Integrated microheaters have demonstrated precisely 4. Future trends of 3D printing and
controlled drug diffusion and subsequent drug release 3D-printed electronics in smart drug
on a periodic basis via heating function with a potential
to manufacture and design sensor-controlled medical delivery devices
devices. This study provides a new arena to support the The current application of 3D printing and 3D-printed
critical demands of managing pain with on-demand dose electronics in smart drug delivery devices has been more
requirement for clinical use [120] . focused on the “passive” type of smart drug delivery
devices. This allows for the fabrication of many different
3D printing technology has become the key player in types of drug delivery devices, which allow for controllable,
the development of biosensors, thanks to its versatility [121] . on-demand drug release. However, the use of 3D printing
Different types of sensors offer advantages, depending and 3D-printed electronics in “active” smart drug delivery
on the unique properties of the material, functionality devices with electronics, which has a self-regulated, closed
and sensor response. Biosensors with precise designs loop system, are currently more limited. “Active” smart
can be made using special inks, and improved surface drug delivery device can use sensors to detect and monitor
properties with fewer flaws can be tailored to increase the physiological changes in a patient, and then start and
sensor’s sensitivity to pick up signals better than those stop the release of drug as needed. The future direction
manufactured through conventional methods [122] . These and trends in 3D printing and 3D-printed electronics in
properties remain an asset in designing biosensors for “active” smart drug delivery devices will be discussed in
improved drug delivery. Moreover, 3D manufacturing the subsequent sections in two main parts. The two parts
causes minimal material waste and can be readily are concerning the use of 3D printing for the fabrication
customized to the patient’s needs. Flexible biosensors of different parts or even the entire smart drug delivery
that simultaneously detect multiple metabolites in device, and the fabrication and application of 3D-printed
biological samples through continuous and non-invasive electronics in smart drug delivery devices.
measurements not only saves time, but also have the
potential to monitor disease progression and determine 4.1. Future trends in smart drug delivery devices for
an individual’s health parameters [123] . Lin et al. developed 3D printing
a biocompatible gastric resident electronic device made The application of 3D printing in the fabrication of smart
from poly-l-lactic acid and thermoplastic polyurethane drug delivery devices has allowed for an increase in the
capable of prolonged residence in the gastric environment customizability and types of design of the smart drug
and maintains wireless electronic communications. When delivery devices. 3D printing has also allowed for different

Volume 9 Issue 4 (2023) 156 https://doi.org/10.18063/ijb.725