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mental health of people in India. For example, studies in Kashmir have noted the mental health consequences of floods
among people in terms of trauma, depression, stress, and anxiety (Fatima and Maqbool, 2017; Hassan, Singh, and Sekar,
2018; Dar, Iqbal, Prakash, et al., 2018). Some studies have documented the mental health impact of floods on people in
Bihar. Livelihood concerns were among the main reasons for developing symptoms of depression. A study showed that
the elderly are more susceptible to developing PTSD and depression following the floods in Bihar (scored high PTSD
at p<0.05 compared to all other age-groups) (Telles, Singh, and Joshi, 2009; Telles, Singh, Joshi, et al., 2010). Another
study showed the psychological impact in the form of sleep disturbance and flashbacks among the elderly survivors of the
Uttarakhand floods. At least 16.1% of the sample experienced recurrent flashbacks following the disaster and mostly had
difficulty in maintaining sleep (14.5%). At least 12.9% found themselves thinking about the disaster and its recurrence
even when they did not want to, and experienced intrusive memories regarding the same. At least 6.5% experienced a
loss of their sense of safety and security following the disaster, and many contemplated relocating to other relatively safer
parts of the state. At least 21.0% experienced restlessness and increased physiological arousal, contingent with any stimuli
associated with the disaster, while 1.6% experienced increased irritability and anger at minor instances. At least 3.2%
of them experienced vague bodily complaints non-attributable to any specific reason, following the occurrence of the
disaster and significant worry regarding the future. At least 19.4% attempt to avoid reminders of the disaster (Chandran,
Roopesh, Raj, et al., 2015).
A study among high school students showed that, of all the adolescents aged 13-16 years, about one-third continued
to suffer from trauma-related stress disorder even after 3 months of the flood in Uttarakhand in 2013 (Nisha, Kiran, and
Joseph, 2014). The study shows that people struggle with psychosocial problems due to floods. They suffer psychologically
because of the continuous loss of crops caused by floods. Farmers are always under immense mental pressure to sustain
their families (Patel, 2018c). Due to erosion of the social, environmental, and material context, the recurrent floods have
large negative impacts on the mental health outcomes and psychological and physical functioning of people in Northern
India (Wind, Joshi, Kleber, et al., 2013).
The review indicates that flooding affects people of all ages, can exacerbate or provoke mental health problems, and
highlights the importance of secondary stressors in prolonging the psychosocial impacts of flooding. The distressing
events experienced by the majority of the people, transiently or for longer periods after disasters, may be difficult to
distinguish from the symptoms of common mental disorders. However, there are a number of methodological challenges
that arise when conducting research and analyzing and comparing data on the psychosocial and mental health impacts of
floods. Most of the studies employed cross-sectional design without a control group. There is a lack of studies that report
evidence from the monitoring of the mental health of the flood-affected populations. Studies were conducted during the
1 year, with no medium- to long-term follow-up. This is important because acute stress-related response, if not addressed
st
properly, can evolve to more severe disorders such as depression.
3.4. Cyclones and Mental Health
Even as cyclones become a regular occurrence in the range of disasters worldwide, they continue to leave behind a trail
of destruction. During 1980-2009, 412,644 people died worldwide from cyclones (Doocy, Daniels, Packer, et al., 2013).
Several studies show that cyclones result in the destruction of property and infrastructure. They also indicate the damage
wrought by cyclones on power supply and related infrastructure (Yuvaraj, Dharanirajan, Narshimulu, et al., 2015). In recent
years, cyclones have resulted in the displacement of people in higher numbers compared to other disasters. In 2013, Typhoon
“Haiyan” caused the maximum number of displacements of people in the Philippines at 4,095,000. Similarly, in 2014,
Typhoon “Rammasun” in the Philippines caused the displacement of 2,994,100 people. In the last century, cyclones have
affected populations worldwide. As for the biggest windstorm disasters between 1900 and 2005, Typhoon “Talim” was the
third biggest disaster, affecting 19.6 million people in China (CRED, 2005). High levels of mental illness, PTSD, and suicidal
attempts were reported among Hurricane Katrina affected people in New Orleans, USA (Sastry and VanLandingham, 2009).
This global trend of evidence-based research has also been seen in India. It has been acknowledged that India has
traditionally been vulnerable to many natural disasters, including cyclones and tsunamis, on account of its unique geo-
climatic conditions. Recent major cyclones in India include the Andhra Pradesh cyclone (1996), the super cyclone in
Orissa (1999), and the tsunami in Tamil Nadu (2004). Cyclones have caused large-scale displacement and devastation
in India. In terms of the biggest windstorm disasters between 1900 and 2005, India featured in the fifth position, while it
had the second-highest number of major tropical cyclones. The super cyclone in Odisha in 1999 was the eighth biggest
disaster in this period affecting 11 million people (CRED, 2005). In 2013, India ranked sixth in terms of the number of
displacements, with Cyclone “Phailin” displacing 1,000,000 people. Cyclones also affect water and sanitation and impact
health in the process.

International Journal of Population Studies | 2020, Volume 6, Issue 1 87