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A study done on children and adolescents in displaced populations showed the prevalence of adjustment disorder,
schizophrenia, PTSD, and other disorders, in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The most common psychiatric morbidities
observed among the primary and secondary survivors were adjustment disorder (13.5%), depression (13.5%), panic
disorder (10.8%), post-traumatic stress disorder (10.8%), schizophrenia (2.7), and other disorders (43.2%). Subclinical
syndrome was present in the majority of the primary and secondary survivors. Few tertiary survivors had subsyndromal
symptoms (Math, Girimaji, Benegal, et al., 2008). Studies have observed the increase in mental health problems among
survivors after the Gujarat earthquake in 2001 (Sharma, 2002). After the earthquake, psychosocial problems were reported,
and some of the women who had suffered psychosocial shock even experienced premature delivery. A study showed
that some of the people whose houses were ravaged during the earthquake in Kashmir in 2005, experienced adjustment
disorders, depression, other stress reactions, and PTSD or PTSD-like symptoms. Some people lost their family members
and/or injured physically (Chadda, Malhotra, Kaw, et al., 2007). A study showed that children had psychological stress
following an earthquake in Sikkim in 2011. Sleeplessness, night-awakenings, and excessive crying were observed among
these children (Mondal, Sarkar, Banerjee, et al., 2013).
The Marathwada earthquake in 1993 in India was one of the worst human tragedies of modern times, which captured
global attention because of the massive impact it had in terms of loss of life and property. Moderate increase in psychiatric
morbidity was observed in the medium term among the disaster-affected group, which for the most part, had subsided by
the follow-up stage 5 years post-disaster. Differential distribution of cases was noticed in the affected villages paralleling
the gradient of disaster losses. There was a clustering of cases within families (Shah, Parhee, Kumar, et al., 2005; Kar,
2010). The above review has summarized the current status of information on mental disorders caused by experiencing or
witnessing a severe, life-threatening earthquake. Each earthquake phase has different mental health problems. The review
suggests that common mental disorders due to earthquakes include depression, cognitive function disorders, PTSD, and
schizotypal personality.
3.6. Landslides and Mental Health
Landslides are among the most significant disasters across the globe, primarily affecting hilly regions. Landslides
adversely affect the economy and cause damage to property (NIUA, 2016). Roads, bridges, schools, irrigation canals,
temples, and cremation sites are damaged as a consequence of landslides (Van der Geest and Schindler, 2016). The impact
on lifeline systems (water systems, hospitals, health centers, energy, and lines of communication) present in the path of
the landslide is massive. They can be severely damaged or destroyed. Indirect effects can include loss of property value,
livestock and crops, and increasing the vulnerability of the population, reducing their coping and caring capacities. The
psychosocial well-being and mental health of rescue workers and their families are also at risk during and after landslides.
In a case report on providing support after landslides, Clifford (1999) described the psychological support services
provided after the Thredbo landslide in New South Wales, Australia, which resulted in 18 fatalities (including a member
of the New South Wales Fire Brigade). The labor-intensive and hazardous emergency response was complicated by a
number of stressors, including fatigue, frustration, fear for personal safety, personal knowledge of the victims, and media
exposure. Catapano et al. (2001) reported a controlled prevalence study among the survivors of the landslide in Sarno,
Italy, in 1998. Survivors were more than 20 times more likely than members of a control group to suffer from PTSD, with
27.6% of survivors meeting the diagnostic criteria for PTSD compared to 1.4% in the control group. Typhoon “Morakot”
in 2009 was one of the most severe typhoons to hit Taiwan. Nearly all inhabitants of the steep mountainside communities
in southern Taiwan were at risk of landslides. Female gender, being injured during the landslide, and bereavement as a
result of the disaster were all associated with increased risk of PTSD (Yang, Yen, Tang, et al., 2011). People suffered
mental stress and emotional trauma after the landslide in Nepal (Van der Geest and Schindler, 2016). Psychological well-
being of children stood threatened as a consequence of floods and landslides in Myanmar (Government of Myanmar,
2015).
In India, the Himalayas are prone to landslides, particularly during the monsoon season from June to October. Various
types of landslides occur in the Himalayas, including block slumping, debris flow, debris slide, rock falls, rotational slip,
and translational slides. Studies show that more than 12% of the land area in the country is susceptible to landslides. The
major landslide-prone areas in India include the Western Ghats and Konkan Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa,
and Maharashtra), Eastern Ghats (Araku region in Andhra Pradesh), North-East Himalayas (Darjeeling and Sikkim),
and North-West Himalayas (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir). Landslides cause damage to
private and government property, infrastructure, and heritage (NDMA, 2009a). Landslides in Darjeeling in 2015 led to
several deaths and people were rendered homeless. Piles of debris were strewn across Darjeeling leading to disruption
of communication, as roads were disconnected, and it took over a month to clear the debris (Sumantra and Raghunath

International Journal of Population Studies | 2020, Volume 6, Issue 1 89