Page 24 - IJPS-7-2

International Journal of
Population Studies Gender gap in life expectancy in South and East Europe

outcomes (Omran, 2005). As claimed by Omran (2005), the addition, it was also found that a higher level of urbanization
epidemiological transition is in line with demographic and and better environmental conditions are associated
technological transitions in the developed countries and it with a smaller gender gap in longevity (Fedotenkov &
is still in progress in less developed countries. According to Derkachev, 2020). The dominant conventional literature
the epidemiological transition or health transition theory, on urbanization and urban poverty increasingly discusses
deaths from cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases, gender issues (e.g., Borrell et al., 2014; Masika et al., 1997;
cancers, and other non-communicable diseases increasingly Margaras, 2019; Veneri & Ruiz, 2013). Therefore, Masika
become leading causes for death since mortality due to et al. (1997) emphasized that urbanization tends to affect
infectious diseases reaches a low level (GBD 2017 Causes gender roles, relations, and inequalities (although with
of death Collaborators, 2018; Gu et al., 2013; Mercer, 2018). differences in the intensity). Urban growth can be driven
by factors such as growth in total income, technological
1.2. Research contexts of the explanatory variables advances, and declining travel costs (Veneri & Ruiz,
The economic and social development, economic related 2013). However, urbanization is a double-edged sword
and employment variables, as well as demographic and can have undesirable consequences. Due to the high
indicators are one of the major determinants for the aggregation of the population, many urban areas are
gender gap in LEAB but they have not been studied exposed to a range of environmental issues that can have
sufficiently in the literature. If the gender gaps in an effect on their sustainability and the quality of life of
longevity are analyzed at the level of cross-country those who live and work in them (Margaras, 2019). Thus,
differences, socioeconomic factors should play a decisive the agglomeration of population in certain urban areas
role (Fedotenkov & Derkachev, 2020). As pointed out by led to undesirable side effects, for example, overcrowding,
Fedotenkov and Derkachev (2020), some studies based rising housing prices, pollution, and deterioration of the
on a large group of countries found that higher inequality quality of life. In addition, air pollution in many European
in the income as well as a higher degree of economic cities still remains a health risk and a lot of the cities do
development quantified by GDP per capita widens the not comply with EU air quality directives. Hence, Borrell
gender gap in longevity (Fedotenkov & Derkachev, 2020). et al. (2014, p. 246) highlight the special characteristics
Fedotenkov and Derkachev (2020) themselves found that of cities: Cities have high population density, typically
in developed countries, a higher economic development higher within the central part of city, and national,
level in terms of GDP per capita has a negative effect cultural, and religious diversity; cities have a lot of human
on the sex gap in longevity. This means that if income resources, cities provide services to the population such as
rises, there is an increase in their health investment, for medical care, education, or social services that are usually
both males and females, but as their study showed, the absolutely accessible; and socioeconomic inequalities in
impact on males is more pronounced. Therefore, higher health tend to be greater in urban areas, with poor groups
incomes lead to a narrowing gender gap in longevity. In of people in disadvantaged circumstances concentrated in
addition, Schünemann et al. (2016) pointed out that in marginalized neighborhoods, typically on the periphery of
developed countries, the gender gap in LEAB appears to the city or in the very center of the city.
be strongly and negatively correlated with GDP per capita. Other indicators related to social development are very
Nevertheless, some studies have also shown that economic important, therefore, in that regard, there will be examined
development is more beneficial to females because the the link between the gender gap in LEAB and the indicators
absolute as well as relative increases of LEAB occur with related with social development. The gender gap in mortality
increases in income (Bai et al., 2018; Borah, 2021). attracted researchers from the natural and social sciences.
The enormous inequality and harsh environmental Clearly, the related health economics literature provides
conditions in cities are an important feature of urban relatively little theory-based discussion of the gender gap
areas, leading to high heterogeneity in socioeconomic in mortality. One of the reasons for this was certainly
circumstances and resources (Santana et al., 2015). that the health capital model dominated the literature for
This means that the consequences of urbanization are several decades (Schünemann et al., 2016). Because health
not the same for everyone. Several studies that focus on capital is a latent variable, which is exclusively used by
urbanization and mortality come to some conclusions economists; hence, it was reasonable why it was alien and
about their associations, such as higher urbanization is problematic to use by the medical and biological sciences
associated with ischemic heart disease, infectious disease, (Schünemann et al., 2016). Appropriately, Schünemann
chronic liver disease, and cirrhosis, and that the lower et al. (2016) found that health and health investment
levels of urbanization are associated with suicide, stomach preferences can contribute about 70% to the gender gap.
cancer, diabetes, and dementia (Santana et al., 2015, p.2). In When these scholars extended the model with gender-

Volume 7 Issue 2 (2021) 18 https://doi.org/10.36922/ijps.v7i2.389