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International Journal of
Population Studies Social contact and coronavirus anxiety

2010; van der Linden, 2015). It is important to understand top three countries severely affected by COVID-19. Several
the demographic impact of public risk perception and studies in the past indicated that the risk perception among
associated health anxiety during this period when the women is comparatively higher than that among men (de
countries were witnessing an increase in the number of Zwart et al., 2009; Ibuka et al., 2010; van der Linden, 2015).
positive cases and deaths related to COVID-19. However, Ibuka et al. (2010) did not observe any significant

Being complex and multidimensional, risk perception correlation between age and perceived risk in the context
is a largely subjective psychological construct (Dryhurst of H1N1 influenza.
et al., 2020) and past studies have demonstrated that The implications of the COVID-19 pandemic are
it is influenced by cognitive, experiential, emotional, financial and physical loss but they can also have long-term
sociodemographic, and sociocultural factors (van der consequences on the psychological and physical well-being
Linden, 2015). The cognitive dimension of risk perception and behaviors, along with other negative consequences
associated with the pandemic can be based on one’s (Restubog et al., 2020). Several studies indicated that the
knowledge gained through social networks, which expand COVID-19 pandemic has led to fear, anxiety, distress,
to social interactions with friends and relatives, social and depression-related mental health (Harper et al., 2020;
media postings (such as Twitter, Facebook, Reddit, and Lee, 2020; Lee et al., 2020; Ornell et al., 2020; Roy et al.,
blogs), news, media channels, communications from 2020; Verma & Mishra, 2020; Wang et al., 2020; Yang &
health authorities, government announcements, etc. Based Ma, 2020). While fear is the most common emotion during
on the social network contagion theory (Scherer & Cho, the onset of a pandemic, excessive fear can lead to anxiety
2003), the perception of risk about a pandemic may be disorders (Lee, 2020; Ornell et al., 2020), which may
influenced by the communication about the pandemic subsequently affect long-term psychological and mental
within individuals’ social networks, which expands to well-being. Behavioral changes can occur due to the
create groups of similar thoughts, beliefs, communities, spread of the pandemic, resulting in increased attention
and organizations. Based on Slovic’s (1987) psychometric to personal hygiene, social distancing, isolation, and
paradigm (Leppin & Aro, 2009), COVID-19 pandemic repeated check with medical professionals to determine
risk can be categorized as a “dreaded risk” – characterized if the symptoms are related to the COVID-19 (Restubog
as uncontrollable, catastrophic, fatal, rather than an et al., 2020). Harper et al. (2020) observed that fear is a
“unknown risk.” Hence, the cognitive risk assessment of normal and functional response phenomenon during the
the threat or the fear of the pandemic may lead to anxiety COVID-19 pandemic; it is highly related to anxiety, and
and other mental health issues. The experiential factors drives behavioral changes. In a study conducted in China,
of risk perception are based on one’s emotions and affect. Wang et al. (2020) observed that a higher perception of
From a Health Belief Model (HBM) point of view, one’s the likelihood of contracting COVID-19 is associated with
own experience with the hazards, based on the cognitive higher level of anxiety and, further, observed that 28.8% of
appraisal, may trigger higher emotions and, hence, the sample reported moderate to severe anxiety and 16% of
affect risk perception. In the present study, therefore, we the sample moderate to severe depressive symptoms. The
included “social contact with COVID-19” (SCC19) as one high mortality rate among elderly people may also increase
of the factors to assess risk and anxiety. SCC19 is a new anxiety and stress among these groups.
term, which refers to “knowing some close relatives or In a study with sample data collected in early March
friends infected with COVID-19” (Center for Medicare & 2020 to develop a health screener for COVID-19, Lee
Medicaid Services, 2022). (2020) observed that younger adults reported a higher level
However, the judgment of the risk perception is based of corona anxiety (CA) than their counterparts. However,
on several factors. Due to the dynamic nature of the spread this study failed to establish any significant correlations
of the pandemic, the risk perception, level of anxiety, and between anxiety and gender. While examining depression,
precautionary behavior differ based on sociodemographic anxiety, and stress among the Indian population during
and cultural characteristics. The sociocultural factor of risk the COVID-19 pandemic from April 4 to 14, 2020, Verma
perception is built on the “cultural theory of risk” (Douglas & Mishra (2020) observed that 25% of the population
& Wildavsky, 1983) wherein it is argued that an individual’s were moderately to severely “depressed,” 28% of them
risk is influenced by the group (belongingness) and grid moderately to severely “anxious,” and 11.6% of them
(control). Hence, we believe that the individuals belonging moderately to severely “stressed.” The study indicated
to an individualistic or collectivistic society may differ in that a higher percentage of males as compared to females
their risk perception due to their relative position of social had anxiety and depression, whereas a higher percentage
control and belongingness. Our study specifically focused of females had stress. On the contrary, Das & Pal (2021)
on the collectivistic society of India, which was one of the examined CA predictors in India and observed higher

Volume 9 Issue 3 (2023) 70 https://doi.org/10.36922/ijps.1211