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Journal of Chinese
Architecture and Urbanism Hakka settlement in the middle ground

concept of the “rural-urban fringe” in Western countries by informal controls, affectivity, and consensus, whereas
to the “Desakota” in Asian contexts, existing research modern architecture emphasizes impersonality and
consistently identifies diverse factors influencing peri- independent specialization (Breese, 1966). This contrast
urban areas, including economic conditions, labor flow, aligns with the transformation described in Weber’s (2013)
and transportation. While some scholars have explored theory of domination – from traditional domination based
architectural transformations in urban villages that mix on customs and long-standing practices to legal-rational
rural and urban characteristics (Gao et al., 2022; Wang domination tied to legal authorities, laws, and regulations.
et al., 2009), urban villages represent a specific village In this context, modern architectural landscapes, designed
morphology within cities. However, for those villages through rational planning and often lacking a sense of
located in ambiguous areas between metropolises and place, are described as “placeless geography,” including
remote villages, how the architectural landscape has been subtopias and individual features unrelated to their cultural
transformed and reshaped still requires further discussion. or physical setting (Relph, 1976). To some extent, Relph’s
concept explains the architectural landscape of peri-urban
2.2. Vernacular versus modern architecture areas in Western countries, but the hybrid architectural
In the early 20 century, cultural geography began landscape constructed by the coexistence of traditional
th
studying and mapping the style and form of everyday and modern buildings in other Asian countries, like
or vernacular architecture in North America (Brown & China, requires further discussion. Although the meaning
Maudlin, 2012; Sauer, 1925). This initial research viewed of “placeless geography” involves cultural and personal
architectural form, construction, and style as expressions experiences, it also depends on people’s perceptions and
of a “way of life,” reflecting the technological development feelings about architecture (Kraftl, 2010). As Lees (2001,
and cultural values of a society (Goss, 1988). Influenced by p. 56) noted, it is important to “…explore the way the built
this perspective, pioneering architectural scholars such as environment is shaped and given meaning through the
Amos Rapoport and Paul Oliver explored the production active and embodied practices by which it is produced,
and evolution of vernacular architecture, integrating it with appropriated, and inhabited…” Understanding what people
cultural practices and social rituals (Jackson, 1996; Knapp, do within architectural spaces significantly contributes to
1986; Oliver, 2006; Rapoport, 1969; Rapoport, 2003). Their a deeper comprehension of the architectural landscape
works have had profound impact on subsequent research (Llewellyn, 2003).
into vernacular architecture. As a result, the majority of
traditional vernacular architecture research has focused 2.3. The emerging Middle Ground in China
on the cultural significance of architecture constructed Over the past few decades, the Middle Ground has
by specific identity groups, frequently and geographically prominently emerged in Chinese peri-urban areas,
defined (Ding & Xiao, 2022; Liu et al., 2019; Oranratmanee, particularly in southern China. Unlike Western
2020; Zhang et al., 2023). An emerging trend in this field urbanization patterns, Chinese urbanization is driven
examines how human emotions and cultural identity are by townization, also referred to as urbanization in place
expressed or reinforced through architecture and urban or in-situ urbanization (Guldin, 2001; Zhou, 2020).
spaces, particularly in traditional architecture (Chen, 2011; Specifically, “deagriculturization” is occurring in Chinese
Chen & Romice, 2009; Semprebon et al., 2020). However, countryside, where more and more people are abandoning
much of this research tends to view traditional architecture agriculture but continue to live in the villages. Many of these
as static, neglecting its dynamic context, particularly in people work in town factories and enterprises, contributing
transforming peri-urban areas. to widespread townization and reducing the differences
Extensive research has criticized the homogenization between different places (Guldin, 1996). According to
caused by global modernization and urbanization, which Guldin, if the Middle Ground is identified according to
threatens the distinctiveness of various places (King, 2004). China’s official urban hierarchy, it encompasses ji (集),
This dichotomy between modernization and tradition xiang (乡), zhen (镇), county (县), and county-level city
extends to urban and rural areas, but these characteristics (县级市), as shown in Figure 1.
are often complexly and paradoxically integrated rather than The Chinese Middle Ground is shifting toward
distinctly separated (Lutz & Shakhs, 1982; Wu et al., 2010). urbanization, engulfing the vernacular landscape of the
This intertwining of modernization and tradition creates local context (Costa & Batista, 2011), including spatial
a new tension that shapes the architectural landscape. To settlement fabric, building forms, and public facilities. In the
better comprehend the contrasts between vernacular and past, Chinese rural settlements consisted of clustered houses
modern architecture, it is helpful to examine the societies in nucleated settlements or individual homes dispersed
they belong. Vernacular architecture is typically governed among farming fields (Knapp, 1986). The spatial fabric was

Volume 7 Issue 1 (2025) 3 https://doi.org/10.36922/jcau.3649