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Microbes & Immunity Pulmonary immunity: Pathogens versus protectors

– serve as critical defense strategies to eliminate infected Acknowledgments
cells and limit pathogen spread. However, pathogens
have evolved sophisticated strategies to manipulate these We are especially thankful to the nurses and advisors of the
pathways to their advantage, creating a delicate balance Nursing Research Center of Respiratory Diseases at Masih
Daneshvari Hospital, who collaborated in this research.
between protection and pathology. 40
7. Innovative perspectives on pulmonary Funding
immune responses None.
Recent advances in immunology provide new insights into Conflict of interest
novel mechanisms and therapeutic targets in pulmonary
immunity. ILCs – which mirror the functions of T-cell The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
subsets but lack antigen-specific receptors – have emerged Author contributions
as key players. ILCs contribute to both protective and
pathological immune responses in the lungs, offering new Conceptualization: Saeid Besharati
avenues for intervention. In addition, the respiratory Writing-original draft: Zohreh Nazari Yazdi, Marjan
41
tract microbiome is now recognized as a critical modulator Sistani, Shirin Esmaili Dolabinezhad
of pulmonary immunity. Commensal microbes influence Writing-review & editing: Saeid Besharati, Shirin Esmaili
immune cell development and function, while dysbiosis Dolabinezhad
is linked to various respiratory diseases. Manipulating the
microbiome through probiotics or targeted therapies holds Ethics approval and consent to participate
promise for modulating immune responses. Innovative Not applicable.
42
technologies such as single-cell RNA sequencing and
spatial transcriptomics provide unprecedented insights Consent for publication
into the cellular and molecular dynamics of pulmonary Not applicable.
immunity. These tools enable researchers to analyze the
heterogeneity of immune cells within the lung and identify Availability of data
novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets.
Not applicable.
8. Challenges and future directions References

Despite these advancements, several challenges remain– 1. Dondi A, Carbone C, Manieri E, et al. Outdoor air pollution
– including the heterogeneity of pulmonary diseases, the and childhood respiratory disease: The role of oxidative
complexity of host–pathogen interactions, and the risk stress. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(5):4345.
of immune-mediated damage. Therefore, future research
should focus on: doi: 10.3390/ijms24054345
(i) Identifying biomarkers for early disease detection and 2. Besharati S. The expanding antibiotic resistance: The
personalized therapy requirement of new therapeutic strategy for the development
(ii) Developing universal vaccines against highly mutable of new anti-infective. In: Innate Immunity - New Perspectives
viruses such as influenza and Therapeutic Opportunities. London: IntechOpen; 2025.
(iii) Exploring the role of the lung–brain axis and systemic p. 49.
immune responses in pulmonary health. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.1006935
9. Conclusion 3. Besharati S, Kalaleh AR. Personalized nursing and precision
nursing: A concept of the future of the health model. J Prev
The battle between pathogens and the pulmonary Diagn Treat Strategies Med. 2024;3(4):227-234.
immune system is a dynamic and evolving struggle. doi: 10.4103/jpdtsm.jpdtsm_48_24
Advances in understanding immune mechanisms and
pathogen strategies are paving the way for innovative 4. Block H, Zarbock A. A fragile balance: Does neutrophil
extracellular trap formation drive pulmonary disease
therapies that enhance protection while minimizing harm. progression? Cells. 2021;10(8):1932.
Through the application of cutting-edge technologies and
interdisciplinary approaches, the balance may be shifted doi: 10.3390/cells10081932
in favor of host defense, promoting healthier lungs and 5. Besharati S. The expanding antibiotic resistance: The
improved quality of life for patients worldwide. requirement of new therapeutic strategy for the development

Volume 2 Issue 4 (2025) 36 doi: 10.36922/MI025100019