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analytical sensitivity compared to conventional centrifugation- and immunoaffinity-

based workflows.

6. Summary and Outlook

This review provides a systematic examination of the transformative role of

conventional and 3D-printed microfluidic technologies in three pivotal areas of cancer

research: tumor modeling, therapeutic development, and clinical diagnostics. By

comparing these platforms with traditional methodologies, we underscore their ability

to overcome key limitations of conventional approaches. Notably, 3D microfluidic

tumor models surpass traditional 2D cultures in biological fidelity by faithfully

replicating essential vivo features, such as (1) 3D tissue architecture, (2) physiologically

accurate cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, and (3) dynamic nutrient and oxygen

gradients. The advent of 3D printing has further revolutionized these systems, enabled

rapid prototyping of intricate microstructures while drastically reduced costs and

operational complexity compared to animal models.

Beyond tumor modeling, the convergence of microfluidics and 3D printing has

driven significant innovations in therapeutic delivery 145,146 , including (i) precision-

engineered drug-loaded microcarriers with programmable release kinetics, (ii) patient-

specific implantable scaffolds for targeted therapy, and (iii) microphysiological systems

for personalized drug screening. It must be acknowledged that although 3D-printed

microfluidics holds considerable promise, it still faces multiple challenges. There exists

a fundamental trade-off between resolution and printing speed, where high-precision

printing is often time-consuming and requires costly equipment, thereby limiting the

fabrication of complex structures and large-scale implementation 147 . Furthermore,

existing 3D-printing materials, such as photopolymer resins, exhibit insufficient

biocompatibility, optical transparency, and mechanical properties 148 , along with

difficulties in achieving multi-material printing. These limitations make it challenging

to meet the stringent requirements of applications such as biological detection and
chemical synthesis. Additionally, the lack of standardization in 3D-printed microfluidic

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