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capability to incorporate multiple cell types, ECM components, and vascular networks

within precisely controlled microarchitectures 161 offers a powerful platform for

studying tumor-stroma interactions and cellular crosstalk under physiologically
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relevant conditions .

Looking toward the future, the integration of microfluidics with next generation

4D and 5D printing technologies promises to usher in a new era of intelligent, adaptive

systems for precision oncology. These sophisticated platforms will feature dynamic,

stimuli-responsive materials capable of morphological or functional changes in

response to specific biological cues, effectively blurring the boundaries between

engineered systems and living tissue. Such biologically integrated engineering

solutions are poised to create a seamless continuum from tumor modeling to therapeutic

intervention, enabling real-time monitoring of treatment responses, autonomous

adjustment of drug release profiles, and continuous optimization of therapeutic
strategies based on evolving tumor dynamics. This convergence of technologies

represents a paradigm shift in cancer research and treatment, potentially enabling truly
personalized medicine approaches that adapt to each patient's unique disease

progression.

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