Page 82 - AJWEP-v22i3

Hossain and Rahman

Figure 2. Life cycle stages within the cradle-to-grave system boundary for denim trousers

• Distribution: Transport of materials and final techniques, and fossil-fuel-powered energy systems; and
products, including the shipment of cotton to the S2 scenario using organic cotton with minimal synthetic
factory and delivery of finished pants to consumers. inputs, water-saving dyeing and finishing techniques,
• Use phase: Consumer use of the jeans, including and renewable energy (solar)-based powering systems.
laundering (washing and drying) over their These factories were selected based on comparable
lifespan. Typical consumer behavior was assumed, production scales and product types to ensure a fair
with washing after approximately every 10 wears baseline comparison between the two scenarios. Data
in warm water and occasional machine drying. collection was conducted in mid-2024 through on-site
This behavior was considered identical for both visits, direct measurements, and structured interviews
scenarios. A total of 200 wear-and-wash cycles per with plant managers and engineers. Information
garment was used for the assessment. on resource consumption (e.g., water use, energy
• End-of-life: Disposal of jeans following their consumption, and chemical usage) and emissions or
useful life, based on a representative disposal mix waste generation was gathered from facility records
comprising landfilling, incineration with energy (utility data, production logs, and wastewater reports)
recovery, and recycling. In the base scenario, and through operational observations. To improve data
most discarded denim is assumed to be landfilled reliability, multiple data sources were cross-checked.
(reflecting current practices), with smaller fractions For instance, reported fuel and electricity usage were
incinerated or recycled. verified against utility invoices and meter readings,
Infrastructure and capital equipment were excluded while production throughput was confirmed using
from the system boundary, which was in line with inventory reports. Discrepancies were clarified through
standard LCA practice, to focus on operational flows. follow-up inquiries.
This comprehensive scope ensures that improvements Secondary data were used for upstream processes
in one life cycle stage do not lead to unintended and inputs not directly measured at the factories,
burdens shifting to other stages. Figure 2 schematically especially those occurring outside Bangladesh. For
illustrates the system boundaries and processes example, cotton cultivation and ginning data were
considered in this LCA. sourced from industry reports and the Ecoinvent
3.9.1 LCI database, as Bangladesh imports most of
2.2. LCI data and data collection its raw cotton. These data were adapted to the local
A detailed LCI was compiled for each life cycle stage, context wherever possible. In particular, the electricity
quantifying all significant inputs (materials, water, and grid mix for manufacturing was modelled based on
energy) and outputs (emissions and waste) per 1,000 Bangladesh’s actual energy profile, which is dominated
pairs of jeans. Primary data were collected from real by natural gas, with smaller contributions of oil, coal,
production facilities in Bangladesh to ground the LCA and renewables, rather than using a generic or foreign
in local industrial conditions. In total, two representative grid mix. Similarly, fuel use and transport distances
denim factories were considered: S1 scenario reflecting were adjusted to reflect local logistics, such as ocean
typical cotton farming practices using synthetic freight for imported cotton and road transport within
fertilizers and pesticides, conventional indigo dyeing Bangladesh. Upstream agricultural data (e.g., fertilizer

Volume 22 Issue 3 (2025) 76 doi: 10.36922/ajwep.6241