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Explora: Environment
and Resource Environmental contamination of titanium

oxidation states: Ti , Ti (titanous), and Ti (titanic). carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B) on the basis of
3+
2+
4+
Among them, Ti and Ti are not stable, while Ti is sufficient evidence in experimental animals and insufficient
3+
4+
2+
the most stable ionic form, which commonly exists as evidence from epidemiological studies.” 25(p275)
TiO (Table S2). The major sources of anthropogenic Ti enters the human body through ingestion, inhalation,
2
Tiin the environment include the combustion of fossil and dermal contact; fortunately, and importantly, most
fuels and the incineration of Ti-containing products ingested Ti is eliminated from the body. However, the
(Figure 1). Globally, Ti concentrations in aquatic mining of Ti ore and the industrial processing of Ti
freshwater systems range from 12 to 926 μg/L. The extraction generate airborne dust, leading to inhalation
19
mean level of Ti in worldwide river sediments is 0.44% exposure to high levels of Ti that can be toxic. 21,26-28
(w/w). 15,20 In the atmosphere, Ti level ranges from 0.5 to Drinking water guidelines and soil screening levels for
2.5 ng/m and from 15 to 25 ng/m for regional and urban Ti have not been established by the US Environmental
3
3
areas, respectively. The fate and dynamics of Ti in the Protection Agency and the World Health Organization for
21
environment are controlled by its limited solubility and either industrial or residential land use. In fact, due to the
the low reactivity of Ti minerals. low toxicity of Ti to humans, TiO is being increasingly
2
Ti is not an essential element for humans, animals, used to replace lead carbonate and lead oxide as the
or plants, andit is not considered inherently hazardous whiteners in paints. Similarly, water-quality criteria for
either. However, excessive uptake of Ti can be toxic to Ti have not been established for the protection of aquatic
22
humans, animals, soil organisms, and aquatic life. Heringa species, largely because Ti minerals are almost insoluble
et al. reported a detection limit of 0.3 mg/kg for Ti in and have low bioavailability.
23
human tissues associated with medical applications. As Ti is both an industrially important metal and a
noted above, inhalation of nano-TiO -containing dust potential environmental contaminant, making it highly
2
may cause tightness and pain in the chest, coughing, and relevant to current environmental research priorities. The
breathing difficulty in humans, while dermal exposure may present article covers a broad variety of subjects, from
also result in irritation. According to the International Ti’s natural and human-made origins to its effects on the
24
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), “TiO is probably environment and human health, remediation techniques,
2

Figure 1. Sources of titanium in terrestrial and aquatic environments. Created with Microsoft PowerPoint 2013 by Sandun Sandanayakeand Meththika

Vithanage(2025).

Abbreviation: TiO : Titanium dioxide.
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Volume 2 Issue 3 (2025) 3 doi: 10.36922/EER025130027