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Global Translational Medicine

REVIEW ARTICLE
Post-traumatic stress disorder: Cerebral and

extracerebral processing of traumatic memories
and treatment strategies

5
6
Adonis Sfera 1,2,3 , Jacob J. Anton , Jasper H. C. Luong , and Zisis Kozlakidis *
4
1 Patton State Hospital, Patton, CA, United States of America
2 Department of Psychiatry, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States of America
3 Department of Psychiatry, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States of America
4 Department of Health Sciences, California Baptist University, Riverside, CA, United States of America
5 Smoke-Free and Healthy Life Association of Macau, Macau SAR, China
6 International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, Lyon, Rhone Alpes,
France

Abstract

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe neuropsychiatric condition
characterized by anxiety-related symptoms, including intrusive memories. However,
the exact anatomic location of traumatic memories remains unclear. Traumatic
*Corresponding author: imagery may involve the amygdala and posterior cingulate cortex, rather than
Zisis Kozlakidis
(kozlakidisz@who.int) the hippocampus. Besides the central nervous system, cells and even proteins can
process information and store memories. For instance, >36% of cardiac transplant
Citation: Sfera A, Anton JJ,
Luong JHC, Kozlakidis Z. Post- recipients inherit donor personality traits, emphasizing that tissues can store and
traumatic stress disorder: Cerebral recall memories. Moreover, physical therapists mention “musculofascial memories,”
and extracerebral processing of that is, the ability of muscles and fascia to retain the memory of past injuries and adapt
traumatic memories and treatment
strategies. Global Transl Med. their function accordingly. Immune cells record previous infections, demonstrating
2024:3(4):3974. the broader perspective of memory storage in the body. At the cellular level,
doi: 10.36922/gtm.3974 psychological stress induces premature cellular senescence, a survival program
Received: June 19, 2024 characterized by proliferation arrest; resistance to apoptosis; and a toxic secretome
known as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). SASP contains
Accepted: September 18, 2024
brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF), a neurotrophin linked to fear memory that
Published Online: November 22, is frequently elevated in the peripheral blood of patients with PTSD. Endothelial cells
2024
(ECs), the tiles paving the lumen of large and small vessels, age earlier than other
Copyright: © 2024 Author(s). cells in patients with severe mental illness, including PTSD. Senescent ECs release
This is an Open-Access article SASP directly into the systemic circulation, spreading senescence throughout the
distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution body. In this narrative review, we hypothesize that ECs store traumatic memories and
License, permitting distribution, SASP-associated BDNF activates traumatic imagery. We also discuss membrane lipid
and reproduction in any medium, replacement, mitochondrial transplantation and transfer, and several natural and
provided the original work is
properly cited. synthetic compounds that may counteract endothelial senescence and SASP.
Publisher’s Note: AccScience
Publishing remains neutral with Keywords: PTSD; Psychological trauma; Traumatic amnesia; Traumatic hypermnesia;
regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional Cellular senescence
affiliations.

Volume 3 Issue 4 (2024) 1 doi: 10.36922/gtm.3974