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Alrashoudi, et al.
IgG, would provide information about people who had capturing material on the nitrocellulose membrane as it
a history of prior infection and have recovered from the offers an easier and efficient way to test multiple proteins.
disease . Therefore, antibody testing has an important Furthermore, the robotic arms provide fine control of the
[6]
role in epidemiological assessment of community spread nozzle when dispensing the material, while the pumps
of the virus and to guide policy-makers when designing ensure consistent volume of the material to be dispensed
and introducing protective measures . on the nitrocellulose membrane to capture antibodies
[7]
A recent study by Dan et al. reported that people against SARS-COV-2.
who recovered from COVID-19 have immunity Another component of the LFIA is the cassette
lasting for 6-8 months after the infection in which IgG used to house and protect the testing strip from damage.
antibodies could be detected by serology testing . Since the LFIA test can be used to detect different types
[8]
Screening for COVID-19 antibodies could provide of analytes, billions of LFIA tests and cassettes are
valuable information about the level of immunity in the manufactured annually . Recently, there has been an
[11]
community. The screening can also be an important part increase in awareness regarding the environmental impact
in identifying who is immune and who is not when a of medical devices, especially disposable devices [15-17] .
majority of people return to work and transition to the Thus, the environmental impact should be taken into
new normal . Furthermore, the detection of antibodies consideration when designing medical devices to limit
[7]
against SARS-CoV-2 can be used as a tool to monitor this negative impact . Since the LFIA cassette is made
[16]
immunity against SARS-CoV-2 acquired through of polymers, it would be beneficial to consider how it
vaccines, which can be done using laboratory-based can be designed in a way to decrease its environmental
immunoassays such as chemiluminescence and enzyme- impact. Furthermore, using computer simulation for the
linked immunosorbent assay, or rapid tests such as lateral 3D design, these iterations could be tested before the
flow immunoassay (LFIA) . Indeed, a cost-effective fabrication process. Furthermore, the simulation could be
[9]
diagnostic tool would be beneficial for wide community utilized to design and 3D print cassette with minimum
screening. Rapid tests offer comparable outcomes to the polymeric material using different technologies.
laboratory-based tests and can be used when there is a In the past two decades, 3D printing technologies
need to identify people with immunity against the virus have been developed as essential prototyping techniques,
within a few minutes while having the advantages of industrially known as additive manufacturing technology,
being user-friendly, portable, and not requiring expensive which are used as the primary prototyping technology
instruments . in many applications today . 3D printing provides an
[18]
[10]
A LFIA is a point-of-care diagnostic device that accessible method for fabrication of a customized design
offers a rapid and inexpensive test that targets analytes in solution in a rapid controlled manner. Due to its high
the samples by providing qualitative or semi-quantitative utility, it has developed tremendously in many fields, from
results . It consists of four essential parts, namely, the aeronautics to sustainability, as well as medicine [19-21] . In
[11]
sample pad, conjugate pad, nitrocellulose membrane, and this study, 3D printing was used to fabricate cassettes for
the absorption pad, which are assembled and placed in a rapid in-field assays. 3D printing technology provides
housing cassette. One of the most predominant advantages the freedom to fabricate and prototype any designs in a
of LFIA is the simplicity of the device as it can be used standard laboratory setting, and saves the time and effort
in the field without the need for any special equipment or of many researchers. Overtime, different types of 3D
sample processing. Moreover, since the beginning of the technologies have been developed, including material
COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a tremendous effort extrusion 3D printing and vat photopolymerization 3D
to develop LFIA that can be used to detect viral antigens printing. These 3D technologies were used to prototype
or serum antibodies for the identification of infected and print the housing unit.
individuals or immune individuals, respectively [12,13] . As During the pandemic, there has been a massive
more research is being conducted to optimize and develop increase in the innovations and application of 3D printing
more accurate tests, there is a need for a rapid method to technologies. 3D printing technologies offered a wide
prototype and construct these LFIA. range of on-demand solutions during a time where
Technologies such as three-dimensional (3D) supply chains were constrained. Some of the applications
printing and bioprinting can be used as tools to aid in the of 3D printing during COVID-19 pandemic include
development of LFIA where time is of the essence such the production of medical devices, personal protective
as global pandemic . A material extrusion-based 3D equipment, and other devices that aid in controlling the
[14]
bioprinting technique was utilized during the testing strip spread of the virus . With the evolutionary mutations
[22]
development where microfluidic pumps and a robotic of SARS-CoV-2 virus, we are facing new variants such
arm were used to print different antibodies for screening. as Delta variant [23,24] . Since the virus is changing at a
The microfluidic pump system was used to dispense the fast pace, we need to utilize technologies that allow us

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