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duration. During drought situations, children of migrants often dropped out of school. Being in school beyond 9 am
became difficult during heatwaves as the school building was made of concrete and there were no fans.
It was observed that these disasters affected agriculture, although with varying impacts. According to the majority of
participants in the study sites, the changing climate, irregular rainfall, and recurrent disasters reduced crop productivity.
Farmers had to contend with constant crop loss due to recurrent floods. Most participants in Jagatsinghpur said that
floods and cyclones led to submergence of agricultural fields and saline water inundation, rendering agricultural fields
uncultivable in subsequent years. When broken embankments were not repaired in time after the floods, the possibility
of cultivation was delayed further. According to participants in Jagatsinghpur, the livelihoods of people engaged in
fishing and prawn cultivation was affected due to the damage caused by cyclones to boats, fishing nets, fishponds, and
prawn hatcheries that led to financial losses. The cultivation of tiger prawns reportedly stopped after the super cyclone
in 1999.
“Here, the cultivation and the plantation are not possible due to saline water. Over the years, the production has gone
down in our area.” (Housewife, 35 years, IDI)
Participants in Nuapada noted that groundwater depletion and water scarcity were characteristics of the present
drought situation. Along with this, their major dependence on scarce rainfall and lack of adequate irrigation facilities led
to crop loss. Farmers were not able to secure loans from formal sources for agriculture purposes if they failed to repay
earlier loans. Farming had increasingly become an unviable occupation in recent years, rendering people engaged in the
sector highly vulnerable. Droughts affected the prospects of sharecroppers and small and marginal farmers. Agricultural
laborers were also affected due to the lack of farm work.
“Farmers are largely affected by drought. As there is no agriculture and production, we don’t have any earning.
Because of this, we are not able to send our children to school and always encounter problems in feeding our family
and providing clothes to family members. We are not even able to provide treatment when our children have any
health problems…. There is no money with us for our sorrow and happy time, and for treatment…. Usually, food and
work are available when paddy is harvested. If there is no rain, then there is no paddy and no work is available in
our area. Due to this, older people like us face more problems.” (FGD participant, Nuapada)
Most participants in Sundargarh said they had experienced temperature increases up to 50°C during March–June in
the last decade. Participants observed that heatwaves had become more intense in Sundargarh and affected the livelihoods
of roadside vendors, small businessmen, rickshaw pullers, and daily wage laborers. Heatwaves affected cattle rearing due
to a lack of vegetation during the dry season. With the rising temperature, the cattle died roaming in the heat due to lack
of water; hence, people were no longer interested in keeping them. The rising temperatures made it difficult for people to
work in the scorching heat, thus hampering their limited income-earning opportunities. Heatwaves also had an impact on
people’s routines, because they were unable to go out in the extreme heat and eat or sleep properly.
“ It is very difficult to go outside after 10 am and the heatwave persists up to 4 pm in the daytime. After 1 pm the hot
wind blows, and it is difficult to stay home in the afternoon. I usually go to the shade of a mango tree near my home.
For me, it is difficult to move because my left leg and left hand are affected by polio. So, I move by an old tricycle.
Riding tricycles on a bad road in this scorching heatwave is really challenging for me. I have to hold the tricycle
only in one hand, which requires a fair amount of energy, and due to this I feel tired quickly. Every day, I have to go
to the pond which is around 500 m away from my home to perform daily activities like toilet and bath.” (Person with
disability, 18 years, IDI)
Participants from the three study sites experienced the effects of natural disasters on their food security. Participants
in Nuapada described the changes in food security concerns that have occurred over the decades. While thousands died
of starvation as a result of the droughts in the 1980s, the government response to drought at present was said to be
much better. Participants pointed out that when droughts occurred for consecutive years, the challenge to meet food
requirements became arduous, as food grains were not stored beyond a year. Income loss in Sundargarh posed similar
challenges for food security. In Jagatsinghpur, participants noted that the food stock got depleted within 10 days after
floods and cyclones. Stored food grains were washed away, and shops did not open for weeks. Another challenge that
emerged was that standing crops and farm vegetables were damaged during floods, affecting the availability of food.
Some participants recounted the debts that were incurred in trying to meet food requirements in a large family.
As per the participants, natural disasters affected the quality and accessibility of drinking water, sanitation, and irrigation
in the study sites. In Jagatsinghpur, the invasion of saline water in the land area affected drinking, cultivation, and daily life.
The scarcity of water during droughts and heatwaves affected drinking, bathing, sanitation, daily household uses, irrigation,
and cultivation, particularly for the disabled and older population. In some places, it was also reported that women had to
travel far to fetch water, and in a few places, the waiting time at tube wells had increased by up to half an hour.

International Journal of Population Studies | 2020, Volume 6, Issue 1 7