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Patel, et al.

heatwaves and droughts, among other climatic issues. The State Nodal Officer, Climate Change, highlighted that the Odisha
government had initiated pro-climatic policies and adaptation strategies for agriculture. Chahala (water holes) was dug in
the riverbank for extracting water to drink during heatwaves. At community level hubs, jal chatra (large clay communal
water pots kept under a shed) was set up to serve people water during the heat. Further, the government was said to be
promoting self-help groups (SHGs) in the community to ensure that in times of different extreme climatic events families
were secured financially and engaged in productive activities. According to government participants, SHGs were linked
with banks for loans at lower rates of interest (7%) and subsidy (3%), and training was imparted to SHGs for vegetable
cultivation, fisheries, mushroom cultivation, rice business, midday meals in schools, and other small-scale industries.
A government program in Nuapada that has been largely effective, Seasonal Residential Care Centers (SRCCs), has
enabled children of many migrants to continue their education and prevented them from child labor. As per the government
stakeholders in Sundargarh, some key actions taken by the government to help the community combat heatwaves included
a change of working hours, particularly at Anganwadis and schools, sensitization about heatwaves by the medical officer
on each block, and provision of ambulance facilities. Other measures included the establishment of sunstroke units at
community health centers (CHCs) and district hospitals; beds, air conditioners or air coolers, ice packs, medicines, and
ORS were arranged in these facilities. Under the Gaon Kalyan Samiti (Village Welfare Committee), water was distributed,
and sheds were set up in different places so that people could take rest.
One drawback pointed out by participants on the part of the government was that it was not playing a leading role in
implementing schemes, digging ponds, installing tube wells, establishing irrigation facilities, harvesting rainwater, and
supplying seeds. Not all farmers received fertilizers and seeds distributed through government programs. Awareness
generation on drought and cultivation by village-level workers was sporadic, and information was not provided at the right
time for sowing seeds. Participants also highlighted that compensation on crop loss was insufficient. Many people who
were not able to insure their crops due to poor financial status were not compensated, and additionally, it was observed that
awareness of government schemes was less. According to participants in Nuapada and Sundargarh, the Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) lacked proper implementation, as an adequate number of
workdays was not provided under the scheme. Moreover, wages provided under the scheme were irregular and reportedly
lower than the prevailing wage, and the entire amount was often not paid.

4. Discussion
This study highlights that floods, cyclones, and droughts are severely affecting the people of Odisha in various ways.
Heatwaves and lightning are also slowly emerging as major disasters in Odisha due to the severity of impact in recent
years. The study also reveals that there is uncertainty about the timing and duration of seasons in recent years due to
sudden changes in climate. The impact of natural disasters on people’s life is calamitous, particularly on their livelihoods,
agriculture, food security, health, water and sanitation needs. The study shows that agriculture, which is the main source
of livelihood for the majority of participants in the study, has become increasingly affected along with other livelihoods.
Multiple disasters impacted agriculture in various ways, from complete submergence of fields and salinization of soil
during cyclones and floods to loss of crops and reduced production during droughts and heatwaves.
Individuals in the study areas observed that these events may have become more intense in recent years, leaving
scarce employment opportunities and having long-term effects on livelihoods and income-earning capacity. This is further
substantiated by multiple studies that argue that agriculture, the primary source of livelihood for the majority of the
population, is the most widely affected by multiple natural hazards (Mishra, 2007; Chhotray and Few, 2012; GOO,
2016; Duncan et al., 2017; Patel et al., 2019); however, the magnitude of losses in agriculture varies according to each
disaster. For instance, between 1965 and 2008, droughts caused higher losses in crop production than cyclones and floods
(Paltasingha and Goyarib, 2015). Droughts, while directly impacting agricultural production, also proved detrimental
for farmers, laborers, and sharecroppers. Heatwaves made it difficult for people to work outdoors thus depriving them of
basic sources of income, and this has disproportionately affected the poorer sections of the society who cannot afford to let
go of their work. Another study corroborated our findings that heatwaves are anticipated to reduce the working capacity
of people working in exposed conditions (Dash and Kjellstrom, 2011). Cyclones have also been detrimental to livelihoods
other than agriculture (fisheries, and prawn cultivation) in Jagatsinghpur because they damage boats, fishing nets, and
prawn hatcheries. Our findings are similar to the findings of other studies that showed that small landholders in coastal
areas of Odisha turned a portion of their agricultural land (due to salinization) into prawn ponds but found cultivation of
prawns to be unviable due to lack of credit and technical knowledge, and then they were unable to convert the land back
for cultivation (Iwasaki et al., 2009; Chhotray and Few, 2012).

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