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Ki, et al.

Games. This can contribute meaningfully to the literature and suggests a comprehensive view that mega-sports events are
a good opportunity to enhance the national image.
4.1. Limitations
Certain shortcomings should be noted in this study. First, although the participants’ evaluations of all variables were
more positive after the Olympics than before, the changes in some variables were statistically insignificant. The short
time difference between surveys (before and after the Games) could be a reason. While the first survey was completed
before the Olympics, at the time of the first survey, media coverage about Korea in light of the upcoming Olympics was
being widely disseminated. Future scholars might consider completing the first data collection at least 100 days before the
Olympics to limit the potential influence of news coverage related to the Olympics and the host city. This could improve
data accuracy regarding changes in perception. Second, this study did not measure the perceptions of the participants who
did not watch the Games. To evaluate more accurately the effect of the Olympics, researchers should consider evaluating
the differences between changes in a control group who did not watch the Games and in a study group who did.

5. Conclusions
This study examined the effects of the Olympic Winter Games PyeongChang 2018 on the perceptions of the host country’s
citizens and of Americans with regard to the “Korean Wave” or Hallyu. The findings support the fact that the Olympics not
only played a role as a cultural Olympic Games but also played a major role in the ripple effect of Hallyu throughout the
United States and Korea. The authors hope that this study opens doors to evaluating the diverse effects of the Olympics
in the hosting country and other countries.

Acknowledgments
This research was funded by Korean Foundation for International Cultural Exchange. The funding foundation had no role
in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest
No conflicts of interest were reported by the authors.

Authors’ Contributions
Introduction draft: Chan Souk Kim. Literature Review draft: Jeyoung Oh. Method, data analysis, results, discussion, and
conclusion: Eyun-Jung Ki. Revised the manuscript: Eyun-Jung Ki, Jeyoung, and Chan Souk Kim. Contributed to tools/
materials/data collection: Eyun-Jung Ki, Jeyoung, and Chan Souk Kim.

Ethical Approval

Overall study design, questionnaires, and consent processes were reviewed and approved by the IRB of the University of
Alabama.

Availability of Supporting Data
None.

References

Allik J, and Realo A. (2004). Individualism-collectivism and Social Capital. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 35(1):29-49.
Chatziefstathiou D. (2005). The Changing Nature of the Ideology of Olympism in the Modern Olympic era. Loughborough, England:
Doctoral Dissertation, Loughborough University.
Cho M. (2017). Korean Wave Domestic Hallyu: K-Pop Metatexts and the Media’s Self-reflexive Gesture. International Journal of
Communication, 11:24.
Florek M, Breitbarth T, and Conejo F. (2007). Mega Events and Host Country Image: The Case of the 2006 FIFA World Cup. New
Zealand: ANZMAC Dunedin, p3-5.

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