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Ki, et al.

responded by completing the same questionnaire used in the first wave. Therefore, the retention rates were 75.50% for
Korean data and 51.07% for American data.
The participants in the study were residents of South Korea (the host country) and residents of the US who planned
to watch (pre-Games) and who had watched (post-Games) the Olympic Games. The surveys targeted adult residents of
specifically these two countries for the following reasons. First, a majority of previous Hallyu studies focus on other
Asian countries, such as China, Japan, and Taiwan (Kim and Ryoo, 2007), while there has been little research on North
America as a Hallyu market, but the recent success and popularity of the song “Gangnam Style” and the pop band BTS
in the United States hint at the potential of Hallyu in Western countries. PSY’s “Gangnam Style” music video has been
viewed over 2 billion times on YouTube, and 12 million copies of the single were sold across the globe, which is a world
record (McIntyre, 2020). Second, previous studies on many mega-sport events have explored changes in the perceptions
of foreigners about the host country after an event or how such an event affects the host country’s economy or community
(Kasimati and Dawson, 2009). The current study is important because studies on changes in the overall cultural perception
of the host country are limited.
2.2. Measures

The questionnaire was originally created in English. To adapt it for collecting data from Koreans, two native Korean
speakers fluent in English translated the questionnaire from English into Korean. To verify its reliability, the Korean
version was back-translated into English for comparison.

2.2.1. Screening questions
As the purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Olympic Winter Games PyeongChang 2018, the intention
to watch and having watched was the inclusion criteria applied. Before participating in the survey, potential respondents
were asked, “Are you planning to watch the 2018 Winter Olympics?” for the pre-game survey, and only respondents who
answered Yes were included in the sample. For the post-game survey, participants who had completed the first survey
received a link asking whether they had watched the Games, and an affirmative response was the inclusion criterion for
the post-game survey. In the pre- and post-surveys, all questions were the same except the screening question. Participants
answered all of the items on a 7-point Likert scale with optional answers ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly
agree (7).

2.2.2. Cultural soft power
This variable relates to a country’s ability to persuade other countries to want what it wants through cultural exchange.
The authors adapted the three items included to fit the purpose of this study (Holyk, 2011). The items were: “South Korea
has an appealing popular culture,” “South Korea has a rich cultural heritage,” and “South Korea is an attractive destination
for tourism.” The reliability of this variable is 0.88 (K1), 0.92 (A1), 0.88 (K2), and 0.92 (A2). K1 indicates Korean data
collected before the Olympics; A1 refers to US data collected before the Olympics. K2 indicates Korean data collected
after the Olympic Games, and A2 means US data collected after the Olympic Games.
2.2.3. Situational involvement with Hallyu

This variable refers to the degree of short-term involvement and interest in Hallyu due to the Olympics. The study
modified four items developed for previous research (Whang, Yong, and Ko, 2016). The items included: “I recognize
Korean pop culture-related products,” “I have a favorable impression of Korean pop culture products,” “I recognize
popular culture-related products influenced by Korean pop culture,” and “I think Korean pop culture influences
people to travel to Korea.” The reliability of situational involvement for Hallyu is 0.82 (K1), 0.96 (A1), 0.81 (K2),
and 0.95 (A2).

2.2.4. Enduring involvement with Hallyu (EIH)
This variable is defined as the state of ongoing interest or engagement in the Hallyu content, taking into account the
original definition from previous literature (Havitz and Dimanche, 1997). This study adapted the scale established in
previous literature and used the following five items to measure enduring involvement for Hallyu (Whang, Yong, and Ko,
2016). The items included: “I am interested in Korean pop culture,” “I love and enjoy Korean pop culture,” “I am a fan
of Korean pop culture,” “I am more drawn to Korean pop culture than US pop culture,” and “I feel close to Korean pop
culture.” The reliability of this variable was 0.94 (K1), 0.97 (A1), 0.94 (K2), and 0.97 (A2).

International Journal of Population Studies | 2020, Volume 6, Issue 2 19