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Ki, et al.

Cultural cross-border exchanges have been facilitated by globalization and a new world cultural infrastructure (Held
et al., 2000). As a potential counterflow of the Western-dominant media stream, Hallyu is considered “a first sign of how
a country ‘in between’ can find a niche and reposition itself as an influential cultural mediator and creator in the midst of
global cultural transformation” (Ryoo, 2009). In response to these changes, the Korean government adopted Hallyu as part
of its cultural diplomacy programs, strengthening cultural relations with other countries and people (Kwon and Kim, 2014).
The government of Korea officially named the 2018 Olympics the “2018 PyeongChang Culture Olympiad” and sought to
provide various cultural events to raise awareness of Korean culture in the world. In particular, the opening ceremony of
the PyeongChang Olympic Games was praised as a successful showcase of Korean culture and history (Petrusich, 2000).
1.3. Cultural Soft Power

Scholars have investigated the potential soft power capabilities of media messages, as national media messages can
be disseminated internationally (Holyk, 2011). Soft power is the ability of a country to “attract and co-opt them (other
countries) to want what you want” (Nye, 1990). It is the converse of hard power, which is a country’s physical strength –
economic and military power. Soft power stimulates sensuality and the rational part of human beings and can be achieved
by convincing others through intangible values, such as culture and education. The soft power of a country takes various
forms in the media. For instance, soft power can be strengthened by a country’s cultural history and heritage, as a tourist
destination, or through its popular culture (Holyk, 2011). Scholars have indicated that “popular culture has become a
potentially important resource for soft power diplomacy, transcultural collaborations, dialogues, and struggles to win
hearts and minds of people” (Nye, Kim, and Kim, 2013). Similarly, another scholar indicated that the appeal of popular
culture is a type of cultural soft power along with other types categorized as human capital soft power and political soft
power (Holyk, 2011). Studies have found positive associations between the perception of Korean soft power and the
benefits it may bring to the nation, such as tourism intention (Ng, Lee, and Soutar, 2007). Many countries are pursuing the
development of soft power through their cultural features.
1.3.1. Involvement in Hallyu (situational versus enduring involvement)

Popular media, such as drama, entertainment, and movies, influence the evaluation of the country from which the popular
culture originates. Considering the audience from a socio-psychological perspective through involvement can lead to a
better understanding of how a mega-sport event influences the perception of global viewers (Havitz and Mannell, 2005).
Involvement refers to the degree of importance or concern given to any stimulus in a particular situation (Zaichkowsky,
1985). In addition to interest in objects, arousal is also included in determining involvement levels (Havitz and Dimanche,
1997). Reflecting this, scholars define popular culture involvement as “an individual’s interest or arousal toward a certain
pop culture” (Whang, Yong, and Ko, 2016). It is important to understand the involvement of individuals in cultural content
because individual involvement is often closely related to their supportive behavior (Shao, Baker, and Wagner, 2004).
Involvement can be divided into two categories: Situational involvement and enduring involvement (Richins and
Bloch, 1986). Situational involvement refers to involvement caused by a particular situational phenomenon, whereas
enduring involvement refers to a sustained involvement with the subject (Havitz and Dimanche, 1997). While situational
involvement is a short-term concern for a particular subject in a particular context, enduring involvement is more likely to
last longer than situational involvement because it is related to an ongoing interest (Richins and Bloch, 1991). Since there
is a tendency for many media to show the culture or arts associated with the host country during the Olympics, audiences
are likely to temporarily engage in situational involvement in the culture of the host country. They can be divided into
those who participate in enduring involvement with the host country’s culture in accordance with their interest and those
who do not. Studies have indicated that situational involvement is closely related to enduring involvement, as it leads
individuals with a short-term interest in the media content to engage in similar messages or objects (Whang, Yong, and
Ko, 2016). This means that it is important to engage the short-term involvement of the audience through interesting and
positive media messages to trigger their enduring involvement with a country and its culture. While a handful of studies
have discussed the various types of involvement with culture and their consequences, few have examined the association
between involvement types and mega-sport events such as the Olympics. To bridge this gap, this study examined the
effects of the Olympic Winter Games PyeongChang 2018 on situational and enduring participation.

1.3.2. Likeability of Hallyu
With advances in media technology, popular culture plays an important role in not only its country of origin but also in
other countries (Gross and Brown, 2006). Hallyu has become a global phenomenon as interest in Korean culture – Korean

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