Page 12 - IJPS-7-2

International Journal of
Population Studies A theoretical review of childlessness

the variable with the highest association with childlessness. cohabitations have increasingly been associated with the
These explanations also reflect the scenario of the First birth of a child (Jalovaara & Fasang, 2017). Miettinen et al.
Demographic Transition, marked by the decrease in (2015) enhance the importance of marital status to explain
fertility (Kreyenfeld & Konietzka, 2017). Another possible childlessness, considering it more relevant than variables
explanation for the association between childlessness and such as education and social status. Keizer et al. (2008)
education stems from the SDT, already detailed in Section 2. show that European women who have never had a stable
After the first stage of demographic transition, the cultural partner are more likely to remain childless. Despite that,
and normative changes and the expansion of different the association between being in a partnership (mainly
lifestyles create conditions for levels of childlessness even formal marriage) and childbearing seems to lose strength
higher. Finally, the association between childlessness and over the last few decades. Although most children are
education can also be related to fertility postponement. still born within unions, the reproductive behavior of
Increasing levels of education is equal to a greater share single women seems to contribute to increasing levels of
of the reproductive period dedicated to personal training childlessness (Leocádio et al., 2022).
and qualification, which increases the need to postpone When it comes to race and ethnicity, Frejka (2017)
the birth of the first child. Since fecundity is inversely finds a reversal of the association in the United States.
associated with the age of the woman, the likelihood of Higher levels of childlessness have been found in cohorts
childbearing decreases (Kravdal, 2001). of African American women born between 1883 and 1942.
Präg et al. (2016) relate childlessness not only with the This relationship reaches its peak among the cohorts born
level of education but also with female participation in in 1924 and 1925 when African American women were
the European labor market. The expansion of education 2.4 times more likely to remain childless compared to
is accompanied by increasing proportions of women white women. However, among cohorts born after 1940,
in higher positions and with higher wages, which leads childlessness is more likely between white women. Veevers
to rising levels of childlessness. A positive educational (1979) found similar results, showing that in the past,
gradient is observed, that is, more educated women are childlessness used to be higher among African American
more likely to not experience childbearing. However, women, which has been reversed. It is understood that
there are exceptions. Some countries, such as Finland, the living conditions of African American women at the
th
for example, have registered a reversal in the educational beginning of the 20 century were much worse compared
gradient among some younger birth cohorts, that is, the to white women. This scenario marked by segregation
group of more educated women has a lower chance of not and racial discrimination is described as a possible
having a child. A hypothesis that tries to explain these explanation for the greater association among African
exceptions argues that more educated women, in some American women in the past (Frejka, 2017; Veevers,
contexts, are more likely to start family formation processes 1979). And these findings for race are closely linked to the
earlier in life (Präg et al., 2016). discussion that shows a U-shaped trend for childlessness.
The early 20 century was characterized by socioeconomic
th
Esteve & Florez-Paredes (2018) reinforce the idea that, disadvantages (compared to current times), which kept
through education, women’s ideals, expectations, and childlessness higher. This period was followed by a period
opportunity costs can be transformed, which leads to a of increasing marriages and partnerships, which decreased
decrease in the desire for large families and an increase the levels of childlessness (as previously discussed,
in interest in a life without children. Education not only marital status has a strong negative association with
reduces the quantum but also delays the timing, which childlessness). Thereafter, childlessness started increasing
ultimately affects levels of childlessness. Still on the again due to socioeconomic advantages, including the
relationship with education, the authors also emphasize already-discussed advances in education and labor market
the importance of adequate knowledge of contraceptive (Festy, 1980; Poston & Trent, 1982; Rowland, 1998).
methods for childlessness.
Regarding geographic location, most studies indicate
The marital status variable is the one with the strongest that childlessness prevails in urban areas. In addition, the
association with childlessness (Hayford, 2013; Tanturri et al., greater the population density in urban spaces, the greater
2015). Births also occur outside formal or informal unions, the chance of a woman not having a child. The discussion
but a stable partnership usually precedes childbearing. about this variable also exposes that the propensity of
Therefore, not having a stable partner, never having childlessness in the urban area may be, in a way, inflated due
been partnered, and being divorced are situations that to the selective migration of people who previously lived
increase the likelihood to become childlessness. Moreover, in rural areas and seek environments with greater levels of
although children are traditionally born in formal unions, tolerance regarding different types of family arrangement

Volume 7 Issue 2 (2021) 6 https://doi.org/10.36922/ijps.v7i2.352