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International Journal of
Population Studies A theoretical review of childlessness

initially used in 1972 by the National Organization for main concepts discussed above (temporary vs. permanent
Non-Parents as a form of opposition to the term childless, and involuntary vs. voluntary), a proposition of general
which should refer to those who wish to have children but pathways to childlessness is developed. This proposition
are unable to because of biological constraints (Agrillo focuses on the female population, given their limited
& Nelini, 2008). According to feminist perspectives, in reproductive period, and, therefore, of greater impact on the
situations of voluntary childlessness, the term childless temporary versus permanent distinction. The numbered
should be replaced by childfree, since, in English, paragraphs and Figure 1 ahead describe and illustrate this
the suffix “less” can indicate a situation in which proposition of general pathways to childlessness.
something is “missing,” ultimately leading to a meaning 1. Involuntary childlessness (since earlier ages) due
of “unhappiness.” Considering that in these situations to sterility, failed treatment of infertility, medical
childlessness is a result of people’s own and deliberate recommendations, financial difficulties, or professional
choices, childfree would be the most appropriate term pressure – the main causes discussed in the literature
(Kreyenfeld & Konietzka, 2017). There are also negative presented above. This first general example outlines a
stereotypes related to women choosing a childfree life. In situation in which there is no reversal from temporary
different contexts and societies, the deliberate choice of to permanent childlessness, because, due to any of
childlessness violates the social norm, generating harmful these causes, this woman was unable to become a
labels for these women (Agrillo & Nelini, 2008).
mother throughout the entire reproductive period.
As already mentioned, involuntary childlessness can be Even if she wanted to have a child, it was never
due to a set of factors that include sterility, lack of an adequate possible as a result of one or of a mix of these causes,
partner, medical recommendations, financial difficulties, hence, involuntary and permanent childlessness (it
professional pressure, or the transformation of a situation was permanent from the beginning).
that was once temporary into a permanent one (due to 2. Involuntary childlessness due to a continuous
continuous postponement). Voluntary childlessness, postponement of childbearing. When younger, the
on the other hand, has a wider range of motivations. woman had a desire or intention to have a child,
The third significant point on voluntary childlessness however, the birth of this first child remained on hold
to highlight here talks about this. Houseknecht (1987) for some reason, for example, job market constraints,
discusses that a life free from a series of responsibilities the pursuit for higher levels of education, or lack of
that follow the birth of a child, greater opportunities for a suitable partner. When then, she decides to have
self-fulfillment, and easier mobility between residences her first child; it is no longer possible, whether due to
would encompass almost all the motivations behind biological constraints, the lack of a suitable partner,
voluntary childlessness. According to Frejka (2017), men or other reasons. In this case, therefore, there is a
and women decide to remain childless (or childfree) due reversal of temporary childlessness to permanent
to their own subjective reasons. In this sense, the main childlessness, and, since there has been the desire to
causes of voluntary childlessness would be compliance and become a mother at some point, this is characterized
satisfaction with life and with the relationship (in the case as involuntary childlessness.
of partnered individuals), the appreciation of freedom and 3. Voluntary childlessness from earlier ages. In this
independence, the lack of responsibilities regarding raising situation, the woman deliberately chooses to not have
a child, the absence of a paternal or maternal instinct, and children since she is young, therefore, there is no
the desire to experience moments in life in which, at least reversal from temporary to permanent childlessness,
in these individual’s views, the presence of a child could and her childless (or childfree) “state” is considered
become an obstacle. voluntary.
The main objective of this section was to analyze the 4. Voluntary childlessness at older ages. In this case, the
most discussed types of childlessness in the literature, deliberate decision to not have children happens at an
highlighting the particularities of the voluntary versus older age (close to the end of the reproductive period).
involuntary distinction. Using this discussion as When she was younger, the desire for becoming
background, this study develops a summary of possibilities or not a mother had not yet been fully formed, and
among which individuals can become childless. Namely, for some reason (e.g., the partner convinced to not
from the different characterizations and situations in have children, or the woman herself adapted to a life
which childlessness can arise, a set of general pathways to without a child), the woman deliberately chose to
childlessness is proposed. Obviously, this framework does remain childless (or childfree) later in life. Therefore,
not encompass all possible combinations of situations that there is voluntary childlessness with a reversal from
could cause childlessness, however, using the set of the temporary to permanent childlessness.

Volume 7 Issue 2 (2021) 9 https://doi.org/10.36922/ijps.v7i2.352