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35 INNOSC Theranostics and Pharmacological Sciences, 2022, Vol. 5, No. 2 Das et al.

Table 1. Type of modification, solubility parameters, molecular mass, antiviral spectrum, and
mechanism of action of the selected chitosan derivatives

No. Chitosan Type of chitosan Advantages of the Antiviral Mode of action References
derivatives modification polymer spectrum
(molecular mass
[g/mol])
1 Hydroxypropyl Quaternary Increases Hepatitis virus Inhibits the viral [17,18,37]
trimethyl ammonium solubility, enhances C, human spike protein
ammonium addition (342.8) mucoadhesion, coronaviruses and host cell
chloride chitosan prolongs the (HCoVs), human ACE2 receptor
(mHTCC) resistance, and immune deficiency interaction and
increases pH virus-1 (HIV-1) blocks viral
sensitivity. propagation.
2 N,O- Methylation Enhances solubility HIV-1, Friend Inhibits the virus [20,30]
carboxymethyl (291.2) in polar solvents murine leukemia coat protein and
chitosan with increasing helper virus host cell receptor
biocompatibility. (F-MuLV), HSV interaction.
3 Glycerol chitosan Glycerolyation Enhances Rotavirus, Blocks viral [38]
(279.3) penetrability norovirus, replication.
and increases adenovirus
mucoadhesion.
4 Methyl Ammonium Increases drug Adenovirus and Inhibits viral [30]
methacrylate addition and sustainability, slows chicken pox and protein synthesis.
chitosan alkylation (291.3) down drug release, smallpox viruses
and increases
penetrability.
5 Monomeric No modification Enhances Newcastle virus, Causes viral lysis. [5]
chitosan (180.18) biocompatibility and influenza virus
biodegradability but
is less soluble
7 NCMC Methylation Enhances solubility HIV-1, F-MuLV, Inhibits the virus [12]
(559.5) in polar solvents HSV coat protein
with increasing and host
biocompatibility cell receptor
interaction.
8 Carboxy ethyl Alkylation (573.5) Increases solubility HIV-1, HSV, Inhibits the virus [20,30]
chitosan and stability influenza virus coat protein and
host cell receptor
interaction.
9 N-octadecanoyl- Carboxylation and Increases solubility Human Interrupts the virus [30]
N-3-carboxy alkylation (868) and enhances noroviruses, replication as well
propionyl immunostimulatory murine viruses, as interaction with
chitosan activity and feline caliciviruses the host.
mucoadhesion.
10 Palmitoyl- Methylation and Enhances access to HSV, influenza Inhibits viral [31]
trimethyl- palmitoylation the cell membrane virus, HIV-1 polymerases and
chitosan (782) and stabilizes the multiplication
drug sustainability. inside the host
cell.
Abbreviations: HSV: Herpes simplex virus; ACE2: Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2.

into 3D structures was done using CHIMERA evaluate their interactions with the spike protein of
1.11.2. Subsequently, these structures were used to SARS-CoV-2 and the ACE-2 receptor [20].

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