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Journal of Clinical and
Basic Psychosomatics Theoretical models for test anxiety

meta-analysis conducted by von der Embse et al. indicated This study searched the literature published on
that 15 – 20% of U.S. students experienced test anxiety. A test anxiety after 2018 to note recent developments in
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significant relationship was observed between gender and research on test anxiety and overview the results reported
test anxiety: females reported significantly higher levels by current studies on test anxiety. The study objectives
of test anxiety than males. The comorbidity rate of test include systematically investigating the concept of test
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anxiety with other anxiety disorders is as high as 60%. Test anxiety, elucidating the underlying mechanisms through
anxiety is particularly associated with disorders such as which it manifests and impacts individuals, and exploring
social anxiety, separation anxiety, panic, and generalized the factors contributing to its occurrence. In addition,
anxiety. Sarason and Mandler first posited the concept of this study aims to establish reliable methods for assessing
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test anxiety in 1952; since then, research on test anxiety has the presence of test anxiety in individuals and identify
been conducted for more than 70 years and scholars have effective strategies for mitigating its effects. Thus, this
proposed various definitions of this term. Spielberger comprehensive analysis seeks to offer valuable insights that
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postulated test anxiety as a personality trait incorporating can assist mental health professionals in delivering more
cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components that effective support to students experiencing test anxiety.
were specific to certain circumstances. Individuals with
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test anxiety in situations where they are assessed can 2. Methods
exhibit symptoms such as excessive worry, intrusive A systematic search was conducted of electronic databases
thoughts, mental confusion, tension, and physiological including APA PsycARTICLES, Teacher Reference Center,
arousal. Zeidner also believed that test anxiety could exert Academic Search Premier, Medline, and the Educational
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multifaceted effects, encompassing a series of physiological Resource Information Center. The search encompassed
and behavioral reactions accompanied by concerns about articles published between January 1, 2019, and July 31,
potential adverse outcomes such as failure in examinations 2024. The initial search terms were “test anxiety,” “test
or similar evaluative situations. 2 stress,” “exam anxiety,” and “exam stress,” yielding 2,434
Test anxiety is closely connected with the exam articles. Subsequently, dissertations and gray literature
context and is influenced by individual traits. Spielberger were excluded and only peer-reviewed, scholarly journals
with full-text articles published in English were selected.
classified test anxiety as state test anxiety (STA) and trait A total of 990 articles remained after the application of
test anxiety (TTA) to probe this psychological state more these inclusion criteria. A further screening process was
intricately. STA refers to an individual’s emotional state performed, requiring the inclusion of studies that identified
during a specific exam situation; meanwhile, TTA denotes test anxiety as either an independent, correlational, or
a relatively stable component of personality. 6 dependent variable. The final selection of articles was
Ray Hembree conducted a seminal meta-analysis in 1988 restricted to journals ranked in the Journal Citation
that encompassed 562 studies examining the correlates, Reports Q1, Q2, and Q3 categories to ensure that the
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causes, effects, and treatments of test anxiety. This work review incorporated high-quality and impactful research.
significantly influenced the subsequent understanding After removing duplicates, the final analysis included 47
of differences observed in test anxiety (e.g., by gender, articles.
ethnicity, and age) and its associations (e.g., its consistent
link to lower academic performance). Many of Hembree’s 3. Theoretical model
findings were later corroborated by Seipp’s meta-analysis. Test anxiety is a complex, multidimensional construct
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Ergene’s meta-analysis focused on interventions for test encompassing varied aspects. Thus, its components must
anxiety, finding that the most effective treatments ostensibly be delineated based on the specific manifestations of
combined skills-focused approaches with behavioral or anxiety experienced during testing situations. Liebert
cognitive methods. A meta-analysis performed by von der and Morris prepared the groundwork for studying the
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Embse et al. involving a systematic review of 238 studies dimensions of test anxiety by deconstructing the construct
conducted since 1988 revealed the negative impact of test into two dimensions: worry and emotion. Worry signifies
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anxiety on academic performance, observed particularly at cognitive concerns about personal performance and the
the secondary school level. Studies have also found that consequences of failure; emotion denotes the autonomic
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perceived test difficulty, self-esteem, and high-stakes test- responses of students in test-taking situations. Roos et al.
taking situations are significant predictors of test anxiety. built on this foundation and emphasized the importance
These findings support earlier models of interference and of adopting an intra-individual approach to understanding
deficits and validate the modern concept of attentional test anxiety. They suggested that test anxiety can be
control theory. divided into multiple components: cognitive, affective,

Volume 3 Issue 2 (2025) 2 doi: 10.36922/jcbp.3946