Page 32 - AJWEP-22-5

Rajak, et al.

Table 8. Biodiesel synthesis efficiency of heterogeneous catalysts generated from biomass
Source Catalyst Loading Time Temperature Molar-to-oil Yield References
(wt%) (h) (°C) ratio (%)
Seed cake-based Sunflower seed oil cake 5 – 20 2 60 12:1 84 – 94 346
oleic acid Castor seed oil cake 5 – 20 2 60 12:1 84 – 94 347
Jatropha seed oil cake 5 – 20 2 60 12:1 84 – 94 348
Palm oil 5 – 20 2 60 12:1 84 – 94 349
Palm stearin Palm oil shell 10.5 4 60 20:1 95.3 350
Frying oil Sugarcane bagasse 1 5 66 18:1 94 351
Palm oil shell 1 – 6 1–4 60 – 100 6:1 – 18:1 82 – 95 352
Jatropha shell - 2 60 20:1 87 353
Palm fatty acid Sugar beet pulp - 5 85 5:1 92 354
distillate
Tallow Mussel shell 5 1.5 70 12:1 90 157
Rapeseed Biont shell 3 3 70 ns 97.5 355
Shrimp shell 2.5 3 65 9:1 89.1 356
Frying oil Eggshell 1.5 2 65 12:1 96 357
Snail shell 2 8 65 6:1 87 – 99 154
Clam shell 3 3 60 6:1 89 – 97 358
Soybean Eggshell 3 3 65 9:1 95 359
Palm olein Eggshell 10 2 60 12:1 95 360
Pongamia Eggshell 2.5 2.5 65 8:1 94 – 97 361
Fish oil Crab shell 2.5 1.5 65 10:1 96 362
Mustard Turatia striatula shell 3 6 65 9:1 93.3 363
Palm oil Pomacea sp. shell 4 4 60 7:1 95.6 364
Animal bones 20 4 65 18:1 96.7 176
Eggshell 1.5 2 65 12:1 98 365
Green mussel shells 7.5 3 65 2:1 95.1 366
Frying oil Chicken bones 3 3 80 3:1 96 367
Soybean Oyster shell 25 5 65 6:1 70 368
Ash-based
Thevetia Musa balbisiana trunk 20 3 32 10:1 96 369
peruviana
Jatropha curcas Musa balbisiana 5 1 275 9:1 98 370
underground stem
Lemna perpusilla Torrey 5 1 300 9:1 89 371
Acacia tree stem 5 3 65 12:1 98 372
Coconut husk 7 45 45 12:1 99 373
Mesua ferrea Musa balbisiana 5 1 275 9:1 95 374
underground stem
Bauhinia Banana peels 2.75 1 65 7.6:1 98 375
monandra
Azadiracha Cocoa pod husk 0.65 1 65 3:2.2 99 376
indica
(Cont’d...)

Volume 22 Issue 5 (2025) 26 doi: 10.36922/AJWEP025130095