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Brain & Heart Oxidative stress and neurological disorders

7.2.3. Electroconvulsive therapy multifactorial, representing a heterogenous disorder

Treating and managing MDD represents a major influenced by various factors such as heritability, severe
public health challenge nowadays. MDD is considered brain injuries, premature birth, and consanguineous
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a substantial psychological and social disruption. marriage. Prevalence estimates indicate that ADHD
affects approximately 5% of children and nearly 4% of adults
The American Psychiatric Association acknowledges worldwide. ADHD impacts academic performance,
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electroconvulsive therapy as a treatment generally family dynamics, and social relationships, leading to
reserved for patients with severe MDD unresponsive to emotional and financial burdens for both the patient and
other treatments. It involves brief electrical stimulation of their family. 92
the brain under general anesthesia, resulting in changes
in brain chemistry and homeostasis. This procedure is 7.5. Anxiety
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generally considered safe and low-risk. Often employed
as a “quick fix,” electroconvulsive therapy serves as Anxiety is a neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by
an alternative to prolonged medication regimens and feelings of fearfulness, worry, and nervousness, often
hospitalization. Several studies have proven the efficacy accompanied by a sense of helplessness and distress.
Individuals with anxiety tend to avoid stimuli perceived
of electroconvulsive therapy, particularly in patients with as dangerous. Various types of anxiety disorders exist,
treatment-resistant depression. 85
including generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), social
7.3. Bipolar disorder anxiety disorder (SAD), separation anxiety disorder,
and panic disorder. GAD entails excessive worry about
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Individuals afflicted with bipolar disorder experience a broad array of day-to-day circumstances of life.
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episodes of mania and depression, punctuated by periods SAD involves a persistent fear of being insulted and
of euthymia characterized by normal mood, behavior, and humiliated by others, leading individuals to avoid social
energy levels. Manic episodes entail racing thoughts, interactions such as speaking with strangers, participating
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reduced need for sleep, elevated mood, and impulsive in group conversations, or engaging in telephonic
behavior, whereas depressive episodes are marked by conversations. Separation anxiety disorder manifests
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sadness, feelings of guilt, and disinterest in daily activities. as anxiety related to being separated from home or from
Globally, the prevalence rate of bipolar disorder ranges attachment figures. Panic disorder is characterized by
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from approximately 2–5%. The DSM-IV further classifies unexpected and recurrent panic attacks, marked by sudden
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bipolar disorder into two types: bipolar I disorder, onset anxiety symptoms including rapid heartbeat, chest
characterized by clear episodes of mania, and bipolar pain, trembling, and sweating. 97
II disorder, which features milder forms of mania. The
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average age of onset for bipolar I disorder is 18 years, while 8. Oxidative stress in neurodegenerative
for bipolar II disorder, it is 22 years. Both sexes are equally disorders
affected by bipolar I disorder, while women are more
susceptible to bipolar II disorder. 89 Oxidative stress initiates a cascade of metabolic events
through mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation,
Treatment guidelines for bipolar disorder are apoptosis, and tissue loss in the CNS. This disruption
continuously revised and modified to incorporate of homeostasis is a prominent cause of several
advancements in pharmacological and psychological neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease,
interventions. The latest and most elaborated treatment amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, and
strategies involve chemical interventions, with mood Huntington’s disease. Common features among these
stabilizers such as lithium and valproic acid being neurodegenerative diseases include mitochondrial
common options. These medications demonstrate efficacy dysfunction, Abnormal protein aggregation, and
as monotherapy or in combination with antipsychotic oxidative damage. Excessive oxidative stress can impair
6
drugs. Recent additions to the treatment repertoire include the proteosome-ubiquitin system, 5,98 leading to the
lurasidone and cariprazine. accumulation of abnormally aggregated proteins. In
addition, it contributes to excitotoxicity, changes in iron
7.4. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
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metabolism, and inflammation. Oxidative damage is
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is evidenced by increased levels of lipid peroxidation end
characterized by patterns of inattention, impulsivity, products, DNA base oxidation products, and oxidative
hyperactivity, and restlessness. It typically manifests protein damage. Abnormal protein aggregates frequently
in childhood and involves neurological and contain nitrated proteins, carbonyl residues, and
neurodevelopmental issues. The etiology of ADHD is advanced glycation end products. These events initiate

Volume 2 Issue 2 (2024) 8 doi: 10.36922/bh.2704