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Explora: Environment
and Resource Critical minerals and battery recycling

The batteries used in electric vehicles comprise a energy, there is no exhaust gas emission, thus alleviating
single pack. The pack comprises several modules, each air pollution problems caused by driving. In addition to
of which comprises several cells. A single pack weighs electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles that rotate
approximately 500 kg. Cathode materials of electric vehicle their motor using the electricity generated when oxygen
batteries include cobalt, nickel, and lithium, which account and hydrogen gas in the air are converted into water with
6,7
for >30% of the price of electric vehicle batteries. For the help of a catalyst in a fuel cell stack can be considered
example, an NCM811 battery pack with an energy of 70 eco-friendly. In these hydrogen electric vehicles, a battery
kWh contains 6 kg of cobalt, 45 kg of nickel, and 40 kg is used such that when the accelerator pedal is released
of lithium in the form of lithium carbonate (Figure 1). while driving, the motor acts as a generator through the
The demand for these metals in 2030 will be 240,000 wheels, converting kinetic energy into electrical energy
tons, 1.8 million tons, and 1.6 million tons, respectively. for charging. In addition, lithium secondary batteries have
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Therefore, to mitigate global warming using eco-friendly recently replaced lead-acid batteries to provide the 12 V
vehicles, securing the critical raw materials or elements electricity supplied to automotive electronic components.
essential for the above-mentioned batteries is important. Lithium-ion batteries are used mainly in electric
Stable securing of key minerals containing these metals is vehicles. Nickel-metal hybrid batteries have been used in
possible through overseas resource development and can hybrid electric vehicles produced in Japan, but have now
also be achieved by recycling waste batteries generated 9
when electric vehicles are scrapped. been replaced with lithium secondary batteries. The types
of lithium secondary batteries include the NCM lithium-
This paper presents some perspectives on the ion battery, which is produced as the main product in
comprehensive strategies that integrate technology, policy, Korea; a ternary battery (Li(Ni, Co, Mn)O ) in which
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and cultural changes to address the climate crisis and transition metals, such as nickel-cobalt-manganese,
ensure a stable transition to renewable energy. In this paper, are combined with lithium to form a layered transition
the key minerals for electric vehicle batteries are detailed in metal oxide; and lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries
the beginning, followed by a review of the current status of (LiFePO ), which are mostly produced in China. LFP
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recycling technology for waste electric vehicle batteries, as batteries have the advantages of higher safety, lower price,
well as misconceptions and truths about the climate crisis, and longer lifespan than lithium-ion batteries; however,
energy, and battery recycling. Finally, ongoing policies on their disadvantages include low energy density and
critical minerals procurement and battery recycling in short driving range. 10,11 Recently, M3P batteries that use
Korea have been discussed. manganese, zinc, and aluminum instead of iron have been

2. Critical minerals for electric vehicle developed to increase the driving range. 12
batteries Lithium-ion batteries comprise anodes, cathodes,
electrolytes, and separators, and the cathode, made
An electric vehicle harnesses the chemical energy of of lithium, nickel, cobalt, and manganese, is the most
a lithium secondary battery, which is converted into interesting component. These metals are important
electrical energy that rotates motor to move the vehicle. components that affect the driving range of electric
Compared to internal combustion vehicles such as vehicles, which are referred to as critical materials in the
gasoline and diesel vehicles, which convert the heat electric vehicle battery industry. Critical materials are
energy generated when burning fossil fuels into kinetic defined as resources that are essential for the production
of key technologies and products including lithium, nickel,
cobalt, and rare earth element. 13,14 Due to the surge in
demand and supply uncertainties, certain materials have
been selected and carefully managed. For electric vehicles
to replace internal combustion engine vehicles, they must
be able of cruising for 400 km on a single charge, and the
charging time must not be excessively long compared to
the 5-min refueling time of internal combustion engine
vehicles; thus, shortening the charging time is also
important. In addition, the price of electric vehicles is an
important variable, and batteries determine the price of
Figure 1. Contents of critical materials in one electric vehicle battery pack. electric vehicles; for electric vehicles to be competitive,
Image created by the authors. (Redrawn based on Reference No. 42). batteries must be produced at <$100/kWh. In recent years,

Volume 2 Issue 2 (2025) 2 doi: 10.36922/eer.8140