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Gene & Protein in Disease Natural carotenoids prevent prostate cancer

observed in the United States and Europe, while the lowest tumors with a Gleason score over seven. Studies conducted
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incidence is found in Asia and Saharan Africa. 10,16,17 It is on overweight individuals, defined as having body mass
crucial to highlight the complexity of race and ancestry, index (BMI) >25.0 in Asian countries and BMI >27.8 in
as health-care facilities and socioeconomic factors play the United States, have demonstrated a higher possibility
distinct roles in screening, rendering PCa diagnosis of PCa incidence. 28-30 Chronic systemic inflammation
challenging in developing countries. 21,22 It has been pointed in the body, attributed to obesity, further elevates the
out that in certain regions, such as the United States, risk of prostate carcinogenesis. In addition, individuals
African–American groups exhibit an increased incidence with obesity exhibit low levels of free testosterone and
(1.7 times higher estimated risk) than white people, owing luteinizing hormone, which are the factors associated with
to genetic factors, with mortality rates being 2 – 3 times an increased risk of this malignancy. 31
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higher. African–American men are twice as likely to
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develop the disease as Caucasian men and three times more 1.3.7. Diet and oxidative stress
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likely than Asian men. The higher prevalence among Diet was first investigated as a significant risk factor by Muir
African-American men is likely related to genetic ancestry et al. Specific diets play a crucial role in PCa incidence. The
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rather than race. Differences in incidence rates can also be Western diet, characterized by high consumption of meat
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attributed to diet, environmental factors, culture, and habits, products and fats, has been related to an increased risk of
in addition to genetic background. African–American men prostate carcinogenesis. 27,28 In contrast, the Mediterranean
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harbor a chromosome 8q24 variant, which is associated with diet has demonstrated a beneficial impact on PCa risk. 17,27
PCa risk. Moreover, apoptosis gene BCL2 and gene EPHB2 A high intake of overcooked red meat, fat, and dairy
are associated with the risk of prostate carcinogenesis. 22,23 products has been associated with an increased incidence
Several studies have pointed out that prostate-specific of PCa. 27,28 Specifically, high consumption of saturated fat
antigen (PSA) levels are higher in American–African men has been related to cancer relapse, while unsaturated fatty
without PCa than in other populations, and even higher acids, such as omega-6 fatty acids, are related to a high
than those of European men diagnosed with cancer. 24 risk of incidence. 28,33 On the other hand, omega-3 fatty

1.3.4. Aging acids have been demonstrated to play a preventive role in
PCa 28,34 by reducing levels of estradiol, testosterone, and
Men aged older than 65 are at a higher risk of being androgens. Moreover, diets high in fats are correlated with
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diagnosed with PCa. Below the age of 65 years, the risk of increased oxidative stress and inflammation. Although
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PCa is lower, estimated to be under 30.7%. Therefore, age red meat consumption alone has a weak association with
is positively correlated with the incidence of PCa in elderly PCa incidence, 36,37 cooking red meat at high temperatures
men. Moreover, mortality rates tend to increase with age. can increase the risk of PCa due to the formation of
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11
In the United States, the estimated risk is 1.8% for individuals mutagens, such as heterocyclic amines and polycyclic
under the age of 60, 9% for those aged 60 – 69 years, and aromatic hydrocarbons. 35,37 Similarly, consuming dairy
12.5% for individuals over 70 years old. Age is an important products has been identified as a risk factor for prostate
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factor in determining the schedule of treatment. However, it carcinogenesis, particularly high consumption of milk and
is essential for men over 50 years of age to undergo annual yogurt, which have been associated with high incidence
examinations, including PSA tests or rectal examinations. 16 and mortality rates in PCa. This association may be
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attributed to the high concentration of calcium in dairy
1.3.5. Physical activity
products, as increased calcium intake has been correlated
While physical activity has been demonstrated to decrease with a high incidence of PCa. While calcium is important
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the risk of several cancers, the clear association between for cell growth, high levels of calcium combined with low
physical activity and the incidence of PCa remains elusive. levels of vitamin D may induce tumorigenesis. 27
Individuals who are active in physical activity have been
observed to have a lower risk of mortality from PCa 1.3.8. Smoking and alcohol consumption
compared to those who are sedentary. In addition, the The role of smoking in the risk of PCa remains controversial.
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protective role of physical activity at work against this type Tobacco contains over 4000 chemicals, with more than
of cancer remains uncertain. Further research is needed 60 identified as carcinogenic. Smoking can cause DNA
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to elucidate the role of physical activity in preventing PCa. damage and increase the risk of various cancers, including
PCa. Furthermore, smoking contributes to the occurrence
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1.3.6. Obesity of metabolic syndrome, and high consumption of cigarette
Obesity, closely related to metabolic syndrome, significantly smoking can increase the risk of aggressive disease by
increases the risk of aggressive PCa, such as high-grade 30%. Smoking has an even more pronounced effect
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Volume 3 Issue 1 (2024) 4 https://doi.org/10.36922/gpd.2827