Page 72 - JCBP-3-3

Journal of Clinical and
Basic Psychosomatics Emotional effects of COVID-19 memories

stress. The implementation of lockdowns and quarantines Changes in physiological arousal are commonly
4,5
have led to an increase in feelings of loneliness among associated with anxiety and stressful situations and can be
individuals, which, in turn, has been associated with an indicated by changes in physiological markers such as heart
increase in anxiety levels. Other studies also found a rate, blood pressure, breathing frequency, and sweating.
6
significant increase in anxiety when a family member or Prolonged exposure to stressors can have detrimental
friend has tested positive for COVID-19. 7,8 effects on an individual’s health, including headaches, high
The exposure to COVID-19-related news and health- blood pressure, light- headedness, trouble sleeping, and
related information were identified as a significant factor other adverse outcomes. 17
contributing to the increase in anxiety levels during the Changes in arousal are regulated by the activity of the
pandemic. The over- exposure to COVID-19 news and autonomic nervous system (ANS).
misinformation, particularly through online sources,
has been also associated with fear and anxiety. This is The sympathetic branch of the ANS, in particular, is
3
particularly relevant for young individuals, who have responsible for preparing the body for a “fight or flight”
18,19
been found to consume a higher amount of information response when facing a stressful or threatening situation.
on social media. Studies also found that the provision of This activity of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) in
accurate and up-to-date health information by government response to emotional or stressful stimuli can be captured
20
officials can result in lower levels of anxiety. 9 through measures of electrodermal activity (EDA). EDA
measures changes in the activity of the eccrine sweat glands,
The imposition of lockdowns across the world which are under the influence of the SNS. Elevated levels
21
resulted in the closure of businesses and an increase in of EDA may indicate higher activation of the SNS and, thus,
unemployment rates, which were pinpointed as a major heightened arousal. Furthermore, changes in EDA have
22
factor related to anxiety. The financial worry associated with also been observed in relation to traumatic memories.
23
job loss was found to be a significant contributor to anxiety, Studies have also shown that pre-COVID measures of
particularly among individuals within the 21-40-year-old EDA can predict self-report fears of specific COVID-19
age demographic, who constitute a significant proportion stressors. Therefore, EDA is an efficient method to
22
of the working population. 10,11 In addition, students, who measure physiological changes in arousal in response to
often depend on jobs to pay for university tuition and living emotionally charged stimuli, situations, or memories.
expenses, were particularly affected by the pandemic. The
combination of financial stress and the unprecedented While research has identified various stressors related
transition to online education, coupled with limited social to COVID-19 that has contributed to increased levels of
11
contact, was found to be a challenging time for young anxiety, some questions remain unanswered. One such
people in terms of mental health. 12 question is which of the commonly mentioned stressors
cause prolonged physiological arousal even years after
Research demonstrated that males and females the start of the pandemic, and which stressors are most
respond differently to stressful events, both physically and relevant for young adults.
psychologically. Males tend to react to stressors with a “fight
or flight” response, characterized by sympathetic activation Stressors that have long-lasting physiological effects,
and the activation of the hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal as measured by changes in autonomic activity, should be
(HPA) axis. On the other hand, females tend to respond a focus in the mental health management of young adults
to stressors with a “tend and befriend” response, which in preparation for potential future pandemics. This is
is characterized by different brain regions and hormonal particularly important as expectations and preparations
characteristics during stress reactions. 13,14 for future events are often based on memories of past
events. Thus, facing challenging situations with lingering
24
Studies have shown that the COVID-19 pandemic
resulted in different mental health outcomes for males and memories of similar situations that caused elevated arousal
may result in worse mental health outcomes, particularly
females. Proto and Quintana-Domeque found that females 25
tend to experience more deterioration in their mental in individuals suffering from anxiety disorders.
15
health compared to men. Prowse et al. (2021) also found The purpose of this study is to investigate the lingering
differences between male and female university students effects of COVID-19-related stressors on physiological
in their perception of pandemic-related stressors. Further arousal, measured as EDA. It is hypothesized that recalling
16
research exploring gender differences in pandemic-related memories of COVID-19 stressors will result in higher
anxiety may help to identify specific stressors that could levels of physiological arousal compared to baseline
be addressed differently for males and females when levels. In addition, it is hypothesized that self-reported
preparing for a potential future pandemic. anxiety will moderate the effect of COVID-19-related

Volume 3 Issue 3 (2025) 66 doi: 10.36922/jcbp.4825