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Microbes & Immunity

REVIEW ARTICLE
Innovative perspectives on pulmonary immune

responses: Pathogens versus protectors

Saeid Besharati* , Zohreh Nazari Yazdi , Marjan Sistani , and
Shirin Esmaili Dolabinezhad
Nursing Research Center of Respiratory Diseases, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and
Lung Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medicine Sciences, Tehran, Iran
(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Immune Responses to Pulmonary Infections)

Abstract

The pulmonary immune system serves as a critical frontline in the host’s defense
against invading pathogens. Understanding the dynamic interplay between invading
pathogens and the host’s immune defenses is essential for the development of
innovative therapeutic strategies. This review explores the complex mechanisms
underlying pulmonary immune responses, with a focus on the balance between
pathogen virulence and host immunity. Relevant publications – including peer-
reviewed articles, clinical studies, and technological advancements published
between 2020 and 2025 – were identified through searches of electronic databases
such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The findings reveal
that pathogens employ sophisticated strategies to evade immune detection,
*Corresponding author:
Saeid Besharati such as modulation of host cell signaling pathways and the secretion of virulence
(saeid.besharati@sbmu.ac.ir) factors. Conversely, the host mounts protective immune responses characterized
Citation: Besharati S, Yazdi ZN, by rapid activation of innate immunity, cytokine-mediated signaling, and the
Sistani M, Dolabinezhad SE. development of adaptive immune memory. Notably, recent studies have reported
Innovative perspectives on several novel biomarkers associated with enhanced pathogen clearance and tissue
pulmonary immune responses:
Pathogens versus protectors. repair, highlighting their potential as therapeutic targets. This review provides new
Microbes & Immunity. insights into pulmonary immune responses, highlighting the delicate balance
2025;2(4):27-39. between pathogen evasion and host defense mechanisms. By identifying key
doi: 10.36922/MI025100019
immune regulators and pathogen-specific vulnerabilities, it highlights potential
Received: March 6, 2025 targets for innovative treatments to enhance pulmonary immunity. These findings
Revised: April 23, 2025 underscore the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in advancing knowledge
of respiratory infections and immune defense.
Accepted: May 8, 2025
Published online: June 3, 2025
Keywords: Host defense; Immune regulation; Pathogen evasion; Respiratory infections;
Copyright: © 2025 Author(s). Pulmonary immunity; Therapeutic targets
This is an Open-Access article
distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution
License, permitting distribution,
and reproduction in any medium, 1. Introduction
provided the original work is
properly cited. The respiratory system serves as the host’s crucial frontline against the external
Publisher’s Note: AccScience environment, constantly exposed to a myriad of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses,
Publishing remains neutral with and fungi, as well as environmental pollutants and allergens. The lungs are particularly
regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional vulnerable to these challenges due to their large surface area and constant exposure
1-3
affiliations. to airborne particles. To counter these threats, the pulmonary immune system has

Volume 2 Issue 4 (2025) 27 doi: 10.36922/MI025100019