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Microbes & Immunity Infectious agents and autoimmune diseases

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at facilitating immune system response, and the
appearance of IRAEs. In particular, if a relationship doi: 10.1038/ni.3731.
between cells (tissues or organs) affected by IRAEs 4. Meffre E, O’Connor KC. Impaired B-cell tolerance
and metastatic cancer expansions is detected, it could checkpoints promote the development of autoimmune
help understand the mechanism of this apparent diseases and pathogenic autoantibodies. Immunol Rev.
disorientation of the immune system. 2019;292:90-101.
Research in this area could be pursued in parallel with doi: 10.1111/imr.12821
research on the function of the immune system and the 5. Pisetsky DS. Pathogenesis of autoimmune disease. Nat Rev
particular features of each autoimmune disease. Nephrol. 2023;19:509-524.
Acknowledgments doi: 10.1038/s41581-023-00720-1
The author would like to thank Dr. V. Aroniadou- 6. Rosenblum MD, Remedios KA, Abbas AK. Mechanisms of
Anderjaska for specific comments and overall help. human autoimmunity. J Clin Invest. 2015;125(6):216-228.
Moreover, the author would like to dedicate this paper doi: 10.1172/JCI78088.
to the memory of Kostas Vassiliou, a close relative, who 7. Stojanovich, L. Stress and autoimmunity. Autoimmun Rev.
passed away in his early forties, after suffering many years 2010;9(5):A271-A276.
from multiple sclerosis.
doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2009.11.014
Funding 8. Bluestone JA, Anderson M. Tolerance in the age of

None. immunotherapy. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:1156-1166.
doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1911109
Conflict of interest
9. Rałowska-Gmoch W, Koszewicz M, Łabuz-Roszak B,
The author declares that he has no competing interests. Budrewicz S, Dziadkowiak E. Diagnostic criteria and
therapeutic implications of rapid-onset demyelinating
Author contributions polyneuropathies. Exp Mol Pathol. 2024;140:04942.
This is a single-authored article. doi: 10.1016/j.yexmp.2024.104942

Ethics approval and consent to participate 10. Ercolini AM, Miller SD. The role of infections in autoimmune
disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2009;155(1):1-15.
Not applicable. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2008.03834.x

Consent for publication 11. Fairweather D, Kaya Z, Shellam GR, Lawson CM,
Rose NR. From infection to autoimmunity. J Autoimmun.
Not applicable. 2001;16(3):175-186.

Availability of data doi: 10.1006/jaut.2000.0492
Not applicable. 12. Rojas M, Restrepo-Jiménez P, Monsalve DM, et al. Molecular
mimicry and autoimmunity. J Autoimmun. 2018;95:100-123.
Further disclosure doi: 10.1016/j.jaut.2018.10.012
The paper has been deposited (a slightly shorter version, 13. Dotta F, Censini S, Van Halteren AG, et al. Coxsackie B4
with a slightly different title) in Preprints.org (http://www. virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis
preprints.org) (doi: 10.20944/preprints202501.0893.v1). in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci
U S A. 2007;104:5115-5120.
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