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Figure 2. Construction workflow and multidimensional synergistic strategies for tendon organoids. This schematic integrates four core modules—cell
selection, biochemical regulation, physical microenvironment design, and engineering strategies—to systematically outline the construction of tendon
organoids. This integrated workflow emphasizes the multidimensional synergy of cellular, biochemical, biomechanical, and engineering strategies,
establishing a biomimetic platform for constructing functional tendon organoids. These organoids advance applications in regenerative medicine and
pathological mechanism research by replicating native tendon physiology and enabling high-precision therapeutic development. Created with Adobe
Illustrator, Yiwen Xue (2025) https://imgur.la/images/2025/09/09/fig2.jpg.
Abbreviations: 3D: Three-dimensional; ADSCs: Adipose-derived stem cells; iPSCs: Induced pluripotent stem cells; MSCs: Mesenchymal stem cells;
TSPCs: Tendon stem/progenitor cells.

integrate tendon cells with other relevant tissues, such as properties of the scaffold, while the printing design dictates
muscle, bone, and blood vessels, on the same chip, enabling the spatial arrangement of seeded cells. Decellularized
the study of multi-tissue collaborative construction. 147,150 ECM 87,153 and biocompatible hydrogels are commonly
151
used as materials for 3D bioprinting. For instance, one
4.4.2. Optimizing assembly for three-dimensional study adjusted the viscosity of decellularized tendon ECM
printing as a bioink, enhancing 7-day cell viability and enabling
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Three-dimensional bioprinting technology offers the fabrication of complex 3D organoid structures. The
capabilities in high-precision cell and material deposition, application of novel bioink materials with improved
enabling the rapid fabrication of complex 3D structures. biocompatibility and biodegradability, 151,154 such as a
By selecting suitable bioink materials, including natural combination of gelatin methacrylate/alginate methacrylate/
polymers, synthetic polymers, or composites, stable and hydroxyapatite, enables the construction of highly complex
151
154
tunable tissue engineering scaffolds can be constructed. ECM analogs. These advancements have progressively
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Bioinks used in 3D bioprinting form 3D structures through improved stem cell viability and better replicated the native
cross-linking, achieving the strength and stability required organ niche.
to maintain print fidelity and resolution. The choice of Recent advancements in digital light processing-based
bioink materials determines the mechanical and biological lithography printing have made it easier to produce high-

Volume 1 Issue 3 (2025) 12 doi: 10.36922/OR025170016