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Effects of urbanization on air and health

contributes to tens of thousands of pre-mature deaths levels in the absence of strong environmental controls.
annually across Vietnam, representing a substantial and This relationship has been documented across diverse
growing public health burden. geographic and economic contexts, though the
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) emerges as the most magnitude and mechanisms vary considerably.
concerning pollutant due to its widespread presence Chinese studies provide particularly relevant
and established links to respiratory and cardiovascular insights given similarities in development patterns.
diseases. In addition, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from Wang et al. analyzed data from 30 Chinese provinces
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vehicle emissions and power generation, along with between 2000 and 2016, finding that urbanization
sulfur dioxide (SO2) from coal combustion and industrial significantly increased PM2.5 concentrations, with
processes, compound the urban health crisis. These industrial structural changes mediating much of this
pollutants frequently co-occur with PM2.5, creating effect. Their results suggested that every 10% increase
synergistic effects that amplify overall health risks. in urbanization corresponds to approximately 5 – 8%
The present research investigated the causal higher PM2.5 levels, though this relationship varies by
pathways linking urbanization, air pollution, and public region and development stage. A number of other studies
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health outcomes in Vietnam’s major cities, advancing in China also yielded the same results. Additional
the existing literature through several key contributions. investigations have also confirmed the importance of
First, we provided country-specific empirical evidence climate-resilient cities and urban planning in reducing
from Vietnam, a rapidly developing Southeast Asian air pollution in China. 5,6
economy that has received limited attention in Similar patterns also emerge across other rapidly
environmental health research despite its substantial developing economies. In India, Mathew et al.
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pollution challenges. Second, by implementing observed strong correlations between urban expansion
instrumental variable (IV) methodologies, we moved and deteriorating air quality, particularly elevated
beyond correlational analysis to establish robust particulate matter concentrations. Megacities, such as
causal relationships between urbanization processes, Dhaka, Bangladesh, and Jakarta, Indonesia exemplify
pollution levels, and health outcomes. Third, we this global challenge, ranking among the world’s most
evaluated the effectiveness of policy interventions, polluted urban areas due to unconstrained urban growth
specifically Vietnam’s National Action Plan on Air combined with surging vehicle traffic and industrial
Quality Management launched in 2016 and subsequent emissions. On a larger scale, Bakry et al. as well as
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municipal-level measures, in reducing pollution Nghiem et al. confirmed the benefits of information
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exposure and associated health risks. and communication technology (ICT) in improving
Our findings offered crucial insights for policymakers environmental quality. Going into the underlying causes
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not only in Vietnam but across developing countries of emission, Bakry et al. discovered that ICT adoption
grappling with the complex challenge of balancing leads to reduced energy consumption, which, in turn,
urban growth with environmental protection. The lowers emissions.
analysis revealed both the magnitude of the present African urbanization presents an even more stark
crisis and the potential for effective policy intervention example of this challenge. Recent estimates suggested
to mitigate adverse health outcomes. that over 80% of urban residents across Africa breathe
The paper proceeds as follows: Section 2 reviews air that has exceeded the WHO guidelines, indicating
relevant literature on urbanization-pollution-health that pollution levels are directly linked to rapid, often
relationships globally and in Vietnam; section 3 describes unplanned, urban expansion. This pattern highlights how
our data sources and econometric methodology; section urbanization without adequate environmental planning
4 presents empirical results; section 5 discusses findings consistently causes severe air quality degradation.
and policy implications; and section 6 concludes with A comprehensive meta-analysis by Seto and
recommendations for sustainable urban development. Shepherd examining 152 studies across 47 countries
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found that, on average, a 1% increase in urban
2. Literature review population associates with approximately 0.5%
higher PM2.5 concentrations globally. However, they
2.1. Global evidence on urbanization and air emphasize that this relationship depends critically on
pollution a city’s development stage, infrastructure quality, and
International research consistently demonstrates that policy environment. In higher-income cities, advanced
rapid urban growth tends to elevate ambient pollution technology and pollution controls can substantially

Volume 22 Issue 3 (2025) 199 doi: 10.36922/AJWEP025130088