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Design+ Transposing human action research to design

economics, aiming to describe the factors of collective open-ended, transdisciplinary, synthesizing practice
and individual human action. It seeks to “establish the (including design) as “messes,” 13(p99) that is, “dynamic
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reasons for actions” by explaining how and why humans situations that consist of complex systems of changing
engage in intentional, goal-directed behavior. 2(p15) In problems that interact with each other,” and “swampy;” 14(p42)
studies of human action, research frameworks typically and the characterization of design problems as “wicked,” in
operationalize complex tasks into smaller and more contrast to “tame” non-design problems. 15(p160)
manageable tasks, with well-defined success criteria and Rittel and Webber’s 15(p160) characterization of planning
metrics to evaluate actions. Researchers seek plausible problems as “wicked,” as opposed to “tame,” is a well-
patterns of human actions and decision-making processes established example and a suitable representative for the
that lead to goals efficiently. Insights gained from analyzing portrayals of design mentioned. Rittel and Webber proposed
these smaller tasks were then scaled up and generalized the distinction between wicked and tame problems in
to account for human actions in more complex tasks in their critique of using rational, scientific methods for
broader contexts. 3 societal challenges, as discussed by Cross and Rittel.
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Task performance research is conducted across multiple Design practitioners, theorists, and educators commonly
fields, including operations management, industrial and draw upon the wicked–tame distinction to highlight the
organizational psychology, and behavioral science. It challenges that distinguish design from other fields of
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investigates how individuals and groups perform tasks, practice. These challenges, however, often receive limited
taking into account both the “action (i.e., behavioral) recognition in general education and professional practice.
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aspect” and the “outcome aspect” of performance. The Despite Rittel and Webber using the term “planning”
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primary aim of task performance research is to determine in their 1973 article, the notion of wickedness has since
factors influencing the efficiency and effectiveness of become closely associated with design. Rittel later stated
individual or group tasks by identifying “what they that design problems “can be called ‘wicked problems.’”
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are doing right, what they are doing wrong, and where According to Rittel and Rittel and Webber, wicked
improvements in performance can be made.” 9(p.306) For problems are, in essence, open-ended challenges subjected
this purpose, researchers commonly employ both basic to conflicting criteria that interact reflexively with attempts
and applied research to examine a wide range of factors at solving them, are not amenable to rational solution
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affecting performance. These include personal factors procedures or clear criteria for successful resolution,
such as attitudes, abilities, and background; situational and therefore demand creative solutions with inevitable
factors such as workgroup structure, power relationships, repercussions for multiple stakeholders. In contrast,
facilitation, and type or degree of technological support; tame problems are those with relatively straightforward
task characteristics such as complexity and degree of solutions, as rational procedures and unambiguous criteria
uncertainty; as well as characteristics of work outcomes for their successful solutions can be established or readily
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such as variability of quality over time, and breadth. available. Rittel and Webber’s wicked–tame distinction,
To assess performance, strategies include “ratings, Simon’s ill-structured–well-structured distinction,
simulations, outcomes under the control of the individual, Ackoff’s notion of “messy” problems, and Schön’s notion
or big-data capture.” 7(p68) These different strategies enable of “swampy” problems are all used to divide the broader
the examination of performance across multiple contexts, category of “problems” into design problems on the one
contributing to the development of wide-ranging theories hand and non-design problems on the other. For brevity,
and “multidimensional models of performance.” 7(p48) we will refer to these simply as “ill-structured” and “well-
structured” problems (or problem contexts).
Purposeful action theory and task performance
research both tend to generalize their propositions beyond Taking design in this sense as a distinct regime of human
the specific circumstances from which they originate. action and task performance that deserves and depends
Contributions from both fields tend to approach human upon specific aptitudes and sensibilities, one cannot assume
actions as independent of their (supposedly uniform) explanations of human action originating in other contexts
disciplinary and professional context. However, such apply equally to design. Nor can predictors of successful
generalized, context-independent conceptions of task performance in other contexts be assumed to reliably
purposeful human action and task performance contradict predict success in design. Kirsh 3(p422) underscores this with
portrayals of design practice as different from other work an observation that follows the wicked–tame and the well-
contexts. Such portrayals include the characterization structured–ill-structured problem distinctions:
of design problems as ill-structured, in contrast to well- [T]he tasks for which a directed graph
structured problems; the characterization of reflective representation might be constructed range from
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Volume 2 Issue 2 (2025) 2 doi: 10.36922/dp.4875