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Design+ Transposing human action research to design

This required subjects to develop suitable geometry extend of fulfillment of that objective, leading to another
rationalization strategies during their design processes. cycle with the same pattern. 60,61
To capture the development of these strategies, we asked We transcribed, segmented, and coded the observed
the subjects to concurrently think-aloud during their design processes and recorded these data in protocol tables.
digital design processes. 52-54 Following initial supervised These tables are structured temporally along vertical time
technical setup stages, we observed the design processes of axes, as shown in Table 2. Once coded, we linked actions
all six individual subjects remotely via video conferencing using the linkography notation. In this diagramming
software. Each of the six design processes lasted between approach, recorded actions and ideas from segmented
60 and 105 min. During these processes, we collected protocol data are mapped and linked chronologically,
qualitative data in the form of audio and video recordings, resulting in bottom-up, quantitative depictions of design
which were transcribed and consolidated in two parts: activity within distinct time frames. Using this method,
61
Records of observable actions in the external environment we determined links such as “backlinks” and “forelinks”
(freehand sketching as well as interactions with Rhino3D among the recorded actions, as shown in the “Linkograph”
and Grasshopper) and transcripts of recorded think-aloud column of Table 2. 61
thought process verbalizations.
Based on the initial version of these linkographs, we
In contrast to Tetris, with its well-defined goals and
metrics, the design here was characterized as ill-defined further examined pertinent verbalizations of identified
design objectives as well as their respective possible
and open-ended goals with an absence of units to fulfillments to categorize each as either epistemic or
measure and analyze actions. 15,55 For this reason, design pragmatic. For this categorization process, we employed
processes could neither be segmented into predefined
temporal episodes nor evaluated in terms of known, a reasoning approach known as “inference to the
best explanation.”
The “evidence” we used for this
67-69
well-defined goals. To identify different types of action, categorization included qualitative indicators from the
55
and to understand their possible interplay in the design recorded design protocols, and quantitative indicators (i.e.,
process, we aimed to analytically discern pragmatic backlinks and forelinks) from the linkographs. For example,
and epistemic design episodes by determining links
between pragmatic and epistemic “objectives” (i.e., goal a subject verbalized an objective to “act in order to see what
setting) and “fulfillments” (i.e., goal attainment). 56,57 To the action leads to,” and engaged in “explorative moves”
this end, we analyzed the datasets we acquired using a (“What if…?”), we categorized the respective objective
as epistemic.
In contrast, if a subject verbalized an
70(p145)
coding scheme (Table 1) based on Schön’s reflective objective to act “in order to produce an intended change,”
45
practice theory and the linkography method developed
by Goldschmidt 58,59 (Table 2). Linkography is a method and engaged in “move-testing” actions (“Let’s do x.”), we
71(p146)
used to visually represent and analyze the “how” and categorized the respective objective as pragmatic.
“what” of design processes. The coding scheme represents To categorize the fulfillments, we examined instances
each design episode identified by the coder as consisting in which subjects reflect on their designed “geometry” (i.e.,
of “microlevel” actions starting with a subject’s setting “proposal” or “solution”) present in one of the observed
of an objective, followed by “move experiments” toward external environments. If we observed the geometry
fulfilling the stated objective, then by a reflection on the remaining “fixed” (i.e., it had stopped evolving) and forming

Table 1. The coding scheme employed in this study
Actions Definitions Interplay of actions
Setting of an An act involving a designer verbalizing an aim to change their design
objective situation in order to attain “desirable” or “good enough” outcomes. 62,63 In
other words, “goal setting.”
Moving An act involving a designer pursuing actions based on their initially
set objectives in order to “generate both a new understanding of the
phenomena and a change in the situation,” that is, creating outcomes. 61
Perceiving a An act involving a designer seeing that outcomes resulting from their
fulfillment previous move actions are “desirable” or “good enough.” 56,64 In other
words, “goal attainment.”
Reflecting An act involving a designer listening to their design situation’s
65
“back-talk” and “possibly coming up with a completely unexpected,
new insight.” 66

Volume 2 Issue 2 (2025) 7 doi: 10.36922/dp.4875