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Explora: Environment
and Resource WTW emissions of road, rail, sea, and air transport

from a GHG emissions perspective. It is acknowledged non-commercial purposes, free of charge. The study is
that current barriers to rail electrification would need to based on the following data sources:
be overcome. The Brisbane – Melbourne route used in • MTEM
the case study represented a relatively small contribution • ATEM.
to total GHG emissions from the road transport sector
in Australia. However, the impact of mode shift on total References
emissions would substantially increase when other 1. DISER. National Inventory Report - 2019 - Volume 1: The
intercity and intracity routes are considered.
Australian Government Submission to the United Nations
Many factors affect the results of WTW emission Framework Convention on Climate Change, Australian
studies and comparisons between them. High-level National Greenhouse Accounts. Canberra: Australian
comparisons for the current years are likely to be the Government Department of Industry, Science, Energy and
most appropriate. The WTW emission intensity from this Resources; 2021.
study for air passenger transport in 2019 was generally 2. BITRE. Australian Infrastructure and Transport
representative of average values in the literature, although Statistics - Yearbook 2022. Canberra: Bureau of Infrastructure
slightly higher. This could be due to a larger proportion and Transport Research Economics; 2022.
of short-haul flights in the calculations compared with 3. Smit R, Boulter P. Impacts of mode shift on well-to-
international datasets. In the case of air freight transport, wheel emissions from inter-capital transport in Australia:
the information in the literature was more limited. The Part 1- road and rail transport. Explora Environ Resour.
WTW emission intensity in 2019 from the study was 2024;1(1):2024.
somewhat higher than the result from a study conducted doi: 10.36922/eer.3471
for the EEA. For sea freight transport, the mean 2019 4. Smit R. An analysis of an AMSA ship survey and comparison
WTW emission intensities from this study for bulk carriers with the Maritime Transport Emission Model (MTEM).
and container ships were higher than the corresponding Atmosp Environ X. 2023;17:100203.
values in the EEA study.
doi: 10.1016/j.aeaoa.2023.100203
Acknowledgments 5. Hsieh CC, Felby C. IEA Bioenergy: Biofuels for the Marine
Shipping Sector. International Energy Agency Bioenergy
None. Task No 39; 2017.
Funding 6. Meyrick and Associates. International and Domestic Shipping
and Ports Study. Wollongong: Meyrick and Associates; 2007.
None.
7. Airservices Australia. Australian Aviation Network Overview;
Conflict of interest 2023. Available from: https://www.airservicesaustralia.com/
wp-content/uploads/2023/10/australian-aviation-network-
The authors declare that they have no competing interests. overview-september-2023.pdf [Last accessed on 2024 Jan 18].
Author contributions 8. Corbett JJ, Fischbeck PS. Emissions from waterborne
commerce vessels in United States continental and inland
Conceptualization: All authors waterways. Environ Sci Technol. 2000;34:3254-3260.
Methodology: All authors doi: 10.1021/es9911768
Writing-original draft: All authors
Writing-review & editing: All authors 9. Corbett JJ, Koehler HW. Updated emissions from
ocean shipping. J Geophys Res Atmosp (1984-2012).
Ethics approval and consent to participate 2003;108(D20):9.1-9.13.
Not applicable. 10. Liu H, Fu M, Jin X, et al. Health and climate impacts of
ocean-going vessels in East Asia. Nat Climate Change.
Consent for publication 2016;6:1037-1041.
doi: 10.1038/nclimate3083
Not applicable.
11. Endresen O, Sørgård E, Sundet JK, et al. Emission from
Availability of data international sea transportation and environmental impact.
J Geophys Res D Atmosp. 2003;108(17).
A transport mode shift tool (road, rail, sea, and air;
passenger; and freight transport) has been developed as doi: 10.1029/2002JD002898
part of this research study and is available on request for 12. Yau PS, Lee SC, Corbett JJ, Wang C, Cheng Y, Ho KF.

Volume 1 Issue 1 (2024) 18 doi: 10.36922/eer.3471