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Gene & Protein in Disease Albumin (HSA) binding and health

maintained at or near optimal as HSA rises in their point Increase in WBF caused by HSA infusion leads to changes
of action, the liver. HSA should be infused directly into in systemic hormones, which lead to concomitant changes
the liver where it is formed naturally and where binding in both glucose and ketone metabolism. Ketones are
to metabolites and homeostasis originates. It is essential metabolized in the fast cardiovascular capillary circuit,
that HSA is infused to the liver and not into the periphery which is important during exercise when the lungs and
where unbound HSA causes stress through colloidal heart metabolize ketones under stress and on the release
pressure change and nutrient loss. To ensure accuracy of of adrenaline. An insulin surge in the HPV is followed by a
timing for infusion, the HPV should be used, because any decrease in glucose and increasing levels of HSA, ketones,
variations in concentration within the HPV are critical for and fatty acids. Glucagon can also act to increase glucose,
those of both glucose and HSA. Ketones and glucose are the and when insulin is deficient, ketone levels also increase.
secondary variants in the cardiovascular circuit after HSA: Adrenaline raises concentrations of ketones, glucose, and
Their concentrations are determined by the homeostasis of fatty acids. Cortisol like glucagon raises concentrations of
pancreatic and adrenal hormones, which can be modified ketones and glucose but decreases fatty acids when insulin
through the HPV to ensure continuity. is deficient. Note that the level of glucagon is controlled
The liver has highly complex mechanisms for by the pancreas, and the cortisol level is controlled by a
moderating the content of the plasma’s diverse ligands in the separate blood supply to the adrenal gland. Blood is
blood. Fundamental to this is the level of COP maintained therefore sampled from two diverse sites.
by HSA. The liver is adaptable to huge variation in its Deconstructing the actions of these hormones in
production of HSA and metabolites. There is no evidence respect to their sampling of the plasma demonstrates that
to suggest that healthy liver cannot produce, and recharge HSA levels are also partially maintained from the glucose
metabolites linked to infused HSA at any physiological levels when insulin is present (Figure 5). HSA is primarily
levels. In addition, almost all systemic pharmaceuticals controlled by overall pressure in the HPV and this further
form ligands with albumin or other related protein attribute may have practical value for increasing HSA
binders like prealbumin are therefore affected by the HSA during illness. It may be possible to increase HSA naturally
concentration. Changes in WBF will also change the output by fine-tuning levels of these hormones accurately and
of ligand transport to cells by increasing cardiac efficiency. maintaining ketone and glucose levels.
5.4. Importance of HSA infusion into the HPV
1. HSA ‘∝’ K
2. In = ↑HSA ↑K ↓G ↓Fa The HPV is vital to the timely control of glucose, HSA,
(G)
3. gl (-in) = ↑G ↑K and ketones, all of which are maintained by sampling
4. ep = ↑K ↑G ↓Fa and correction of plasma within seconds or minutes.
5. co (-in) = ↑K ↑G ↓Fa HSA and insulin should be administered so that the
homeostatic process controlling HSA, glucose, and ketones
K = ketones, G = glucose, Fa = fatty acids, in = insulin, gl = glucagon,
ep = adrenaline, co = cortisol. is uninterrupted. We have already shown that the infusion
through the periphery leads to incorrect colloidal pressures
Figure 5. Hormones maintaining HSA, glucose, and ketone levels. These and nutrient deficits in the deep cellular structures. Infusion
represent measured results taken from the references and they are non-
linear reactions. (-in) indicates that insulin deficiency is required; for of insulin or HSA to the periphery reduces effective
example, glucagon can increase ketogenesis acutely when insulin secretion concentrations of these hormones in the liver and interferes
is inhibited . Ketone production and release of HSA and ketones are with their respective binding in the plasma. Using the
[14]
linked. (1) Ketone production increases proportionally to HSA levels. HPV, HSA equilibrium can theoretically be maintained.
(2) Insulin increases HSA and ketone production in the presence of Maintaining HSA concentration within the physiological
glucose, which is decreased with fatty acids. (3) Glucagon in the absence
of insulin increases the levels of both glucose and ketones. (4) Adrenaline range should produce immediate benefits in patients with
increases ketones and glucose with loss of fatty acids. (5) Cortisol in low heart and lung diseases. In a healthy individual, the levels of
insulin increases ketones and glucose with loss of fatty acids. In addition, ketone and glucose rise rapidly during exercise and as the
as the HSA levels rise, the glucose concentrations fall as a consequence of lungs and heart metabolize them, the homeostasis of ketone
the dilution of plasma fluid from colloidal pressure change and from the and glucose can be maintained. It is this equilibrium and
additional binding of glucose to HSA. A logical feedback mechanism that
exists between HSA, glucose, and insulin can be manipulated to regulate the balance between ketones, glucose, and the rest of the
the liver and by implication, the health of the body. The implication is that nutrients that maintain body health.
HSA can be raised appropriately when glucose and insulin are present.
Rapid increase of HSA may precipitate adverse effects in pulmonary and 6. Conclusion
heart disease due to the release of ketone bodies. To maintain or increase
HSA levels to a new equilibrium, glucose should be present and insulin HSA concentrations affect every cell in the body and a
added to the HPV. reduction in HSA levels is directly implicated in many areas

Volume 2 Issue 3 (2023) 7 https://doi.org/10.36922/gpd.0328