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Wong, et al.
may not be able to read the text or identify Several auxiliary communication aids are
and comprehend important information on available, including Braille embossers and Audible
conventional printed medication labels . This Prescription Labeling Systems (APLS). Braille
[7]
visual limitation puts them in the same or higher embossers can print medication information
risk than the general population for drug-related and enable information accessibility at will .
[11]
problems associated with improper use of However, only a small percentage of BVI patients
medications , such as concomitant medication can read Braille . Furthermore, pharmacists are
[8]
[13]
use and consuming wrong dosages . The not formally trained to read the Braille printout,
[9]
difficulties experienced by BVI patients are also thus are unable to ensure information accuracy.
compounded by other issues, such as similar Braille printouts are also often bulky and large,
container shapes and sizes, or being prescribed thereby challenging the ease of affixation on
with multiple medications . Studies have medications . On the other hand, APLS aids rely
[11]
[6]
reported that blind Americans have an average on human voice recordings, where an electronic
of 3.3 health conditions . This is particularly form of prescription information is stored in a
[1]
of concern for elderly BVI patients because microchip that is embedded in the medication
they tend to have more co-morbidities and more label. BVI patients can then use a hand-held reader
medications because of age. to decode the label information . However, this
[11]
The most common approach that BVI patients is not scalable as reading and comprehension
use to read medication labels is having someone abilities vary among BVI patients . To this
[11]
else (e.g., caregiver) read to them , which creates end, it is necessary to develop an auxiliary aid
[10]
dependency and undermines self-determination that addresses the needs of BVI patients and the
and well-being. This is especially so for individuals limitations of existing aids.
who are used to being self-sufficient before Recently, additive manufacturing, commonly
suffering from their medical condition. They known as three-dimensional printing (3DP)
may feel more diminished and vulnerable as they technology has been used widely in various fields,
play a less active role in managing their health . such as manufacturing for product prototyping ,
[14]
[11]
Furthermore, communication challenges arise as customization of hearing aids and dental crowns ,
[15]
information is transcribed from the pharmacist or and manufacture of volumetric tactile symbols for
physician to the patient through a third party . In tactile maps to teach geography to BVI persons.
[7]
addition, patient confidentiality is compromised By harnessing the potential of 3DP technologies,
for those who do not wish to have their health tactile aids may be developed to provide BVI
information disclosed to others. Their rights to patients with important information regarding
object to disclosure are diminished as they have their medications through their sense of touch.
no other meaningful alternative of reading the Multiple 3DP technologies have been used for
medication labels, other than relying on someone biological and medical applications, for example,
else . stereolithography apparatus (SLA) and inkjet
[11]
Other approaches that visually-impaired printing [16,17] . SLA uses liquid photopolymer
patients use to manage their medications include resins and laser to create 3D structures. Hou et al.
the use of handheld magnifiers and reading glasses utilized SLA to generate a simplified artificial skin
to enlarge their medication labels, and relying model useful for rapidly screening nanoparticles
on memory to remember instructions provided for their transdermal penetration capacity .
[18]
during a face-to-face counseling session with their Inkjet bioprinters deliver a controlled amount of
health-care provider, of which the former method bioink to the desired printing surface, forcing the
is inapplicable for the blind . These methods content to flow continuously or drop out from
[12]
present risks for these patients, especially those the nozzle . Xu et al. created complex cellular
[19]
who are prescribed with multiple medications, structures by inkjet printing of primary embryonic
each with differing instructions. hippocampal and cortical neurons .
[20]
International Journal of Bioprinting (2020)–Volume 6, Issue 2 115
