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International Journal of
Population Studies COVID-19 and low-skilled workforce in the EU

in agriculture, clerks, delivery workers, and particularly Mazza (2020a; 2020b) divided key work categories into
healthcare workers (Dotsey et al., 2023; Fernández-Reino jobs either requiring low- or high-skilled qualifications
et al., 2020; Isaac & Elrick, 2021; Ruhs, 2020; van Hooren, following the COVID-19 outbreak; they found that
2020). non-EU workers most commonly served in the low-skilled
Presently, there are no universally accepted definitions category (Figure 1).
for low-, semi-, and high-skilled migrants. Moreover, The proportion of migrant workers in high-skilled jobs
there are no sharp distinctions between these groups. was lower than that of native workers or the workforce
Thus, classification reference is generally obtained from from EU Member States. The non-EU workers were,
the International Standard Classification of Education and and still are, assigned to more fragile job position, often
the International Standard Classification of Occupations given lower wages, and employed in jobs with fixed-term
(ISCO) (Beirens et al., 2019). For occupations, low contracts and, above all, that are the least compatible with
qualification refers to ISCO group 9 (elementary teleworking (Fasani & Mazza, 2020a). COVID-19-related
occupations), medium qualification includes ISCO border closures and travel restrictions had also exacerbated
groups 4 – 8, and high qualification includes ISCO groups 1 migrants’ existing vulnerabilities. The pandemic
– 3 (ILOSTAT, 2023). Hierarchical immigrant sorting compromised access to regular migratory routes to cross
highlights the differences between wanted and unwanted borders for work, with implications for larger networks of
migrants. For instance, those who are financially stable and communities (Dotsey et al., 2023; Jones et al., 2021; van
skilled are considered good migrants, whereas unskilled or Hooren, F., 2020). Thus, the distribution of the pandemic’s
humanitarian migrants are portrayed as less so (Anderson, secondary effects was concentrated on groups with
2014). This feeds a system in which different categories of preexisting vulnerabilities who faced uncertain employment
people are entitled with unequitable rights. A lack of equal conditions and for whom pandemic restrictions had acute
rights makes migrants more likely to face exploitation and socio-economic consequences. While low-skilled migrants
less likely to work with authorities in times of need. It is of played a recognized role in keeping key sectors running
utmost importance that the dichotomy between low- and during the pandemic, their placement in these sectors
high-skilled migration must be handled cautiously. In makes them unequally vulnerable to the adverse effects
general, a migrant classification system based on their on their well-being and the job precarity, on top of the
talents or skills has not been agreed upon among the EU already low-paid and insecure work. The pandemic thus
Member States since their discussions are often replete disproportionately hit low-skilled workers the hardest
with differing ideas as to what constitutes a skill. Focusing (Moehring et al., 2021; OECD, 2022; Ullah et al., 2021) and
on formal qualifications often conceals the reality that skills impacted those employed in more invisible forms of labor,
and experience gained through on-the-job training are particularly workers in agriculture, the informal sector,
necessary for lower-skilled jobs; third-country nationals and the domestic sector (Dotsey et al., 2023; UNODC,
frequently possess skills that are difficult to evaluate 2021). Compared to other sectors, these sectors were less
through a certification process or are difficult for employers regulated and rarely inspected before the pandemic, but
to acknowledge (Beirens et al., 2019). In addition, labeling the most recent global health crisis has exacerbated scanty
migrants taking part in seasonal programs, for instance, as regulations imposed in these areas.
low- or semi-skilled fails to recognize the possibility that The care sector in the EU largely depends on the intra-EU
many are actually highly educated and have solid work
experience but are incorrectly categorized in the labor and non-EU labor force (Artero & Dotsey, 2020; Dotsey,
2021). Care workers have proven essential in containing the
market. Within the current framework, high or low skills pandemic and are vital in caring for high-risk populations
in migrant workers are often interpreted solely through the such as elderly, disabled, and sick individuals (Dotsey et al.,
perspective of a country’s labor-market demands (Dotsey
et al., 2023; Platonova & Urso, 2012). 2023). They were on the front lines during the pandemic,
keeping themselves and their patients safe from COVID-19
3. Secondary effects of the COVID-19 infection. The lockdown and quarantine-related measures
pandemic on the low-skilled migrant reduced contact with the outside world, limited mobility,
workforce and restricted access to socio-emotional support. There
was a concurrent increase in the exploitation and abuse
The COVID-19 pandemic has taken a toll on many people’s of, for example, domestic workers, who were likely to be
lives, with migrants being one of the marginal group’s trapped in their homes with their employers. Furthermore,
hardest-hit by the pandemic’s secondary effects (for a the pandemic impacted the lives of care workers in
general overview of this, see Ullah et al., 2021). Fasani and institutions and homes in several ways, in both formal and

Volume 10 Issue 3 (2024) 116 https://doi.org/10.36922/ijps.2165