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of −14.4°C (Ladakh) in winters. The average annual rainfall for the region is 1028 mm with the months of July and
August experiencing the maximum rainfall (IMD, 2014). Agriculture is the direct and indirect source of livelihood for
the majority (75%) of the population while paddy and wheat are the two major crops. Sharecropping along with goat and
sheep rearing is the sources of livelihood for the nomadic communities. Rain is the major source of irrigation followed by
spring irrigation and nallah irrigation (SDMP, 2017).
2. Key Findings

2.1. Impacts of Earthquakes

Situated next to the Himalayas, J&K and Ladakh region falls in a mountain building geological zone and thus experiences
recurring seismic activity (Hassan, 2014). It is an earthquake-prone area that falls under the most active seismic zones in
India (Zones IV and V). It has endured several earthquakes over the years. Between 1889 and 1990, 170 earthquakes were
recorded in the region (Hassan, 2014). The year 1885 witnessed one of the deadliest earthquakes to strike the region, the
effects of which were felt from Srinagar to Gilgit and to Shimla in the neighboring state of Himachal Pradesh (Anees and
Bhat, 2016).
In 2005, a major earthquake – with a magnitude of 7.6 on the Richter scale – struck the border region between India
and Pakistan. The fallout affected both countries. More than 80,000 people – majority of them in Pakistan – lost their lives,
resulting in an enormous humanitarian crisis (SDMP, 2017). The earthquake also resulted in injuries to approximately
100,000 people in Pakistan and about 6300 people in India (Ali, Mir, Jabeen, et al., 2010). It is considered the deadliest
earthquake in the recorded history of the Himalayan region (Anees and Bhat, 2016). Around 1300 of those killed were from
Uri in Baramulla district of J&K. The township saw severe damage to most of its buildings, with 121 of them collapsing
completely and many villages in the vicinity were severely affected by the earthquake (Kumar, Martha, and Roy, 2006).
Kumar et al. (2006) also highlighted using remote sensing satellite data that the earthquake and the subsequent landslides
resulted in collapse of 25% of the buildings in Uri and Poonch townships, collapse of bridges, and road blockage.
In the regions of J&K and Ladakh, earthquakes not only cause immediate destruction but also long-term damage
to the socio-economic condition of the people in the region (Shah, Khwaja, Shah, et al., 2018; Yousuf, Bukhari, Bhat,
et al., 2020). The collapsed houses left entire families homeless and the impact on hospitals and government buildings
interrupted health and other essential services when they were most needed (Hamilton and Halvorson, 2007). A study
on the morbidity patterns of victims of the 2005 earthquake reveals that a majority of the 6270 injured suffered upper
and lower limb injuries, followed by spinal injuries (Ali, Mir, Jabeen, et al., 2010). A study based on the mental health
services provided in the region revealed that within 6 weeks of the earthquake, majority of the respondents had severe
psychological impacts, with adjustment disorders (39.6%), depressive episodes (21.8%), anxiety (4.6%), and post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (3.3%) being the most common (Chadda, Malhotra, Kaw, et al., 2007). This study noted
that a major concern reported by people was the lack of basic mental health services outside the city of Srinagar, which
can be a journey of up to 8 h for people from the remote areas of the region.
With existing inequalities interacting with a natural hazard, the earthquakes also had a devastating impact on the women
of J&K. Women faced an environment of increased personal insecurity and psychological stress due to a lack of sanitation
facilities and immediate food insecurity due to their social responsibility as caretakers of the family. The disruption in
health and reproductive facilities also had severe impacts on pregnant women (Hamilton and Halvorson, 2007).

2.2. Impacts of Landslides
Landslides are another geological hazard common in J&K and Ladakh region. The region is home to young mountain
ranges, which have a fragile rock base that can trigger a flow of debris, mud, and rocks when the stability of the slope
gets disturbed. Heavy rainfall, cloudbursts, and earthquakes can trigger landslides. Anthropogenic activities such as
deforestation, road construction, and other unsustainable development activities have further increased the vulnerability of
the area (Singh, Bhat, Sharma, et al., 2012). Most of the areas in J&K are prone to landslides, with the districts of Bandipora,
Kargil, Anantnag, Kishtwar, Pulwama, and Shopian being highly susceptible (SDMP, 2017). The environmentally fragile
region of Ladakh has also been adversely affected by human activities such as encroachment of hill slopes, forest fires,
terrace farming, and vibrations through heavy vehicular transportation, making it a highly vulnerable zone for landslides
and mudslides (Barnard, Owen, Sharma, et al., 2001).
In 2010, the Ladakh region witnessed one of its most destructive landslides as a result of a cloudburst. The extreme
rainfall triggered multiple landslides and flash floods, leading to the deaths of 234 people with foreigners accounting for

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