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India, 2014). There was also a substantial decrease in the usage of piped water in affected villages as water resources were
severely damaged (Gupta, 2014). The region’s healthcare services were completely overwhelmed, with four out of five
hospitals in Kashmir unable to function due to the floods (Vithalani and Bansal, 2017). The shortage of medical supplies
affected the most vulnerable members of the society, such as the old and physically challenged and those suffering from
chronic diseases such as diabetes and cancer. Disruption of electricity and damaged equipment in GB Pant hospital in
Srinagar resulted in the deaths of 20 neonates (Venugopal and Yasir, 2017). There was an increase in mental illness cases
in the hospitals of Srinagar, with people showing early symptoms of PTSD (Tabish and Nabil, 2015).
The floods have had a long-term impact on the people of J&K as they had not only lost their homes but also their
livelihoods, livestock, and important documents. The Federation of Chamber of Commerce in Kashmir estimated the
economic loss to the region till 2017 at around $15 billion (Tabish and Nabil, 2015). The education of thousands of students
across the region was affected as several government and private school buildings collapsed, leaving students without
essential infrastructure (Venugopal and Yasir, 2017; Tabish and Nabil, 2015). As with all-natural disasters, women were
affected even more than men because of existing gender inequalities and different social and cultural expectations. Their
sanitation and reproductive health needs came under severe stress and their role as provider for the family led to considerable
mental trauma. The lack of proper sanitation facilities in the relief camps and the lack of privacy for breastfeeding infants
emerged as major issues for women in the aftermath of the floods (Gupta, 2014). Flooding of homes and the ensuing
destruction caused severe psychological stress among people and aggravated existing mental health conditions. A study
conducted 6 months after the year 2014 flood in Kashmir described that 60% of the population was suffering from severe
PTSD (Fatima and Maqbool, 2017). The study also found that women and all elderly members of the society (above 60
years) were more affected by mental health issues such as depression and PTSD in the aftermath of floods.
Flash floods are extreme and sudden events that are usually triggered by a cloudburst or by the failure of dams. They
trigger a high velocity current of water, submerging an area downstream within minutes or hours (SDMP, 2017). They
usually occur in areas with steep slopes and, because of their sudden nature, can result in huge damage. Anthropogenic
activities such as deforestation and unscientific road construction, which can trigger landslides, worsen the effects of flash
floods. The cloudburst in the Ladakh region in 2010 resulted in the Indus river and its tributaries overflowing, triggering
flash floods, and landslides. This led to the deaths of 234 people in the Ladakh region, left 800 injured, and caused many
others to be washed away by the water and debris (Gupta, Khanna, and Majumdar, 2012). Transport was disrupted as
many roads were washed away and the airport at Leh was flooded. Many buildings suffered severe damage with around
1000 houses completely collapsing. The damage was not limited to Ladakh region, with around 71 deaths being reported
in 11 other districts (SDMP, 2017). Leh historically suffers a from lack of drinking water and sanitation facilities. These
were further exaggerated by the flooding. Being a tourist destination, Ladakh was further hampered economically due to
the destruction of tourist infrastructure. The district of Baramulla also suffered major losses of around $8.7 million in the
agricultural sector and $8.3 million in the horticulture sector (SDMP, 2017).
Given the presence of the Himalayas in the region, J&K and Ladakh are also prone to avalanches. An avalanche is the
flow of snow down a mountain slope and is very common in the high ranges of J&K (SDMP, 2017). Avalanches generally
occur during episodes of heavy snowfall which can be attributed to the rising global temperature because of climate
change (Rafiq and Mishra, 2018). Higher reaches of Kargil and Ladakh and the valleys of Kashmir and Gurez are the
most avalanche-prone areas of the region (Hassan, 2014). Avalanches can also be highly difficult to predict and usually
occur over a short period of time. The downward movement of snow can bring with it ice, soil, trees, and rocks, causing
destruction to life and property (Ganju and Dimri, 2004). One of the most destructive avalanches stuck the region in 1995,
resulting in the deaths of 150 people and the closing of the Jawahar tunnel on the Jammu-Srinagar highway (Hassan, 2014).
Avalanches have also proven deadly for the Indian armed forces as they are normally posted in inhospitable locations
of the region. An avalanche in Gurez sector in 2017 killed 20 army men and four civilians and caused destruction to a
tourist place (Rafiq and Mishra, 2018). Avalanches also lead to the blocking of roadways, creating shortage of essential
commodities. They essentially paralyze the life of the communities living in the high mountainous areas of the region,
while also resulting in economic losses due to the impact on tourism. Agriculture is impacted for a longer term as large-
scale movement of snow causes soil erosion making the soil unproductive (Ganju and Dimri, 2004). Historically, J&K
and Ladakh has been a region with abundant water, but with rapid urbanization and increase in global temperatures,
occasional droughts have become a reality for the majority of the region (Hassan, 2014).
2.4. Impacts of Man-made Disasters

Almost all-natural disasters in J&K and Ladakh region are, to an extent, exacerbated by human activities and their
destructive potential is linked to human actions. Man-made disasters, on the other hand, are completely dependent on

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