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Disasters in Jammu and Kashmir, and Ladakh region

about 10% of the deaths (Gupta, Khanna, and Majumdar, 2012). The flow of debris from the hills wreaked havoc on its
path, destroying hospitals, houses, roads, bridges, farmland, and other infrastructure. The traditionally built houses of
Leh and Ladakh were severely damaged, with over 1000 houses completely washed away by the flow of debris (Gupta,
Khanna, and Majumdar, 2012). Roads were damaged and freshwater supply was interrupted due to the destruction of
many canals. The destruction of storage facilities and difficulties in transportation due to heavy rainfall resulted in a
temporary shortage of food supply. The destruction of hospitals and lack of sanitation facilities meant that public health
was also severely affected. The remoteness of certain areas also meant that the availability of health services was further
delayed (SDMP, 2017; Gupta, Khanna, and Majumdar, 2012).
Singh et al. (2012) argue that unplanned development in the form of construction of roads and dams is the major cause
of landslides in the region. The landslide on the Batote-Doda road along National Highway 1B in 2009 was a case of
slope failure resulting from the construction of the Baglihar hydro-power project. It washed away 150 m of the highway,
killed one person, and affected the daily lives, livelihoods, and food security of 600,000 people for over a month (Singh,
Bhat, Sharma, et al., 2012). Mining sites in the region are also located in highly landslide-prone areas. Laborers work
under conditions of constant risk and the mining endangers the fragile environment, creating a vicious cycle. The influx
of tourists and the simultaneous infrastructural development – while positively affecting the J&K and Ladakh region’s
economy – has also made its environment more fragile and prone to natural hazards such as landslides (SDMP, 2017;
Verma and Mushtaq, 2013).
The blocking of highways and other roadways, which leads to a disruption of normal life, is a common occurrence
across the region during landslides. The Jammu-Srinagar Highway, a lifeline of the Kashmir valley, gets blocked every
year due to landslides and results in hundreds of vehicles being stranded (Indian Express, 2018). This also prevents
essential commodities from reaching the valley, creating shortages, and increasing prices. Cultural and religious activities
such as the Amarnath yatra have also been interrupted from time to time due to landslides. Landslides cover agricultural
land with debris and mud, damaging crops and making the land uncultivable for a long period of time (SDMP, 2017). This
has an enormous impact on the livelihoods of farmers and of nomadic communities that live in hilly regions. The annual
migration of the nomadic communities gets affected by the blocked roads. Landslides also cover large areas, preventing
them from grazing their animals (Anees and Bhat, 2016). Like most other disasters, landslides have a severe impact on
women due to existing social inequalities. There have been few studies on the psychological impacts of landsides in J&K.
However, studies conducted in other parts of the world show that survivors of landslides are more likely than others to
experience PTSD (Catapano, Malafronte, Lepre, et al., 2001).
2.3. Impacts of Floods and Avalanches

Flooding is one of the most common and also one of the most devastating natural disasters across the world (CRED and
UNISDR, 2015). It is generally a result of overflow of water due to rainfall, melting of snow, or other natural causes,
which ends up submerging an area of land. Besides these natural causes, there are human activities such as deforestation,
rapid and unplanned urbanization, construction of dams and bridges without proper research, and changing patterns
of vegetation that make an area more vulnerable to flooding. The region is prone to floods, with major rivers such as
Jhelum, Chenab, and Indus flowing through its populated areas (SDMP, 2017). Kashmir valley’s bowl shape, with its vast
variation in altitudes, makes the low-lying areas of the region specifically prone to floods. In the two-major urban centers
of the region – Jammu and Srinagar – the number of wetlands such as lakes and ponds, which act as natural sponges, have
come down severely, resulting in frequent urban flooding (Gupta, 2014).
In September 2014, extremely heavy rainfall led to one of the most severe and widespread instances of flooding in the
region. The Jhelum, Chenab, and Tawi basins were overflowing as the amount of rainfall received in just few days was 2-6
times (depending on location) the monthly normal for September (SDMP, 2017). The floods severely affected ten out of
22 districts in the region, with districts in southern part of Kashmir being severely affected. About 30% of the urban area in
the region was submerged and 2600 villages were affected with 400 being completely submerged (Vithalani and Bansal,
2017). The floods were followed by landslides that damaged roads and bridges, including one that washed away 50 people
in a bus in Rajouri district (Gupta, 2014). More than 300 people lost their lives during the floods and lakhs of people
were displaced as more than 80,000 pucca houses and about 21,000 kachha houses were completely damaged (Vithalani
and Bansal, 2017). Multiple roadways across the region were blocked for days, including the Jammu–Srinagar highway,
which remained closed for over 3 days, disrupting relief measures (Gupta, 2014). Farmers suffered huge losses as crops
were destroyed, agricultural land was inundated, and thousands of animals reared for animal husbandry perished (SDMP,
2017; Shah, Khwaja, Shah, et al., 2018). In the immediate aftermath of the floods, food security was a serious concern. A
study claimed that 86% of respondents in Kashmir and 36% in Jammu reported a decrease in food consumption (Sphere

72 International Journal of Population Studies | 2020, Volume 6, Issue 1