Page 80 - IJPS-9-1

International Journal of
Population Studies COVID-19, economic crisis, insomnia, and stress

score, while fear of poverty was associated with a higher current cigarette smoking; negative correlates were a
insomnia score (Table 2). higher APGAR family score, older age, and never having to
work (mainly retired, housewives, and students). Adding
3.3. Exposure to COVID-19, health characteristics, insomnia as an independent variable to the model did
PTSS, and insomnia not substantially change it, and insomnia was positively
As for health-related matters, a lower PCL-5 score was associated with PTSS.
associated with being in contact with a COVID-19 patient or
knowing someone infected with COVID-19, while a higher Positive correlates of insomnia included fear of
PCL-5 score was associated with worrying about a family poverty, FOC, physical violence at home, number of
member becoming infected with the virus and fear of the dependent children, and being afraid of not having access
virus. Physical activity during confinement was significantly to treatment. In contrast, having a higher APGAR family
associated with lower insomnia, while FOC was associated score was associated with lower insomnia. When PTSS
with higher insomnia (Table 3). Additional results are was additionally included in the model, the majority
detailed in in Part C in Supplementary File (Table S2). associations of these variables did not change, and PTSS
was positively associated with insomnia. However, the
3.4. Multivariable analyses: correlates of PTSS and fear of the COVID-19 scale was not associated anymore
insomnia with insomnia (Table 4). Results from sensitivity analysis
In the multivariable analysis, positive correlates of PTSS of the multiple linear regressions confirmed the above
were FOC, fear of poverty score, the female gender, and relationships (Part C in Supplementary File; Table S3).

Table 2. Economic characteristics, PTSS, and insomnia
Frequency (%) PTSS mean p‑value* Insomnia p‑value*
N=502 (100%) (SD) mean (SD)
Subjective assessment of economic status before COVID 0.673 <0.001
No answer 5 (1.0) 15.11 (18.08) 55.38 (12.65) 0.282
Rich 30 (6.1) 16.66 (18.70) 48.18 (13.47) 0.013
Middle class 448 (89.2) 17.85 (16.91) 43.93 (1.97) <0.001
Middle to low 11 (2.1) 19.25 (15.16) 47.74 (8.82) 0.002
Below poverty line 8 (1.6) 9.24 (18.52) 57.89 (3.33) Ref
Subjective assessment of economic status after COVID 0.526 <0.001
No answer 14 (2.8) 16.82 (16.57) 47.55 (14.68) 0.282
Rich 5 (1.1) 21.95 (22.19) 49.66 (10.20) 0.013
Middle class 327 (65.1) 16.99 (17.21) 42.65 (10.60) <0.001
Middle to low 137 (27.2) 19.54 (15.68) 48.24 (11.24) 0.002
Below poverty line 19 (3.8) 14.51 (21.23) 48.67 (12.01) Ref
Current health coverage 0.064 0.006
No health coverage 53 (10.5) 22.92 (15.36) 45.41 (11.26) 0.121
Private insurance 205 (40.8) 18.41 (16.49) 45.88 (11.04) 0.005
Social security 155 (30.9) 16.29 (17.01) 45.07 (11.69) 0.019
Other public coverage 90 (17.8) 16.30 (18.30) 40.90 (9.84) Ref
Household income 0.072 0.001
<675,000 LP 15 (2.9) 21.21 (15.88) 46.43 (11.32) 0.892
675,000 – 1,500,000 LP 64 (12.8) 19.63 (17.81) 46.53 (08.79) Ref
1,500,000 – 3,000,000 LP 149 (29.7) 19.76 (17.93) 45.96 (10.70) 0.776
More than 3,000,000 LP 274 (54.5) 15.82 (16.20) 43.32 (11.90) 0.003
Socioeconomic quartile 0.002 0.231
Quartile 1 134 (26.6) 18.64 (16.27) Ref 45.75 (10.38)
Quartile 2 142 (28.3) 21.75 (19.79) 0.135 43.80 (11.24)
Quartile 3 119 (23.7) 13.78 (15.57) 0.014 45.49 (11.76)
Quartile 4 101 (20.1) 14.52 (13.85) 0.199 43.25 (11.80)
Mean (SD) Unadjusted p‑value** Unadjusted p‑value**
correlation correlation
(r) (r)
Fear of poverty 6.90 (2.65) 0.314 <0.001 0.326 <0.001
IFDWF financial wellbeing scale 39.9 (17.33) -0.329 <0.001 −0.299 <0.001
Note: APGAR: Adaptation, Partnership, Growth, Affection, and Resolve; IFDFW: The InCharge financial distress/financial well-being scale; PTSS: Post-traumatic
stress symptoms. *p-values were based on ANOVA test (and post hoc with Bonferroni adjustment). **p-values were based on Spearman’s correlation test.

Volume 9 Issue 1 (2023) 74 https://doi.org/10.36922/ijps.440