Page 78 - ITPS-8-3

INNOSC Theranostics and
Pharmacological Sciences Activity of green-synthesized nanoparticles

1. Introduction Their small size enables close interaction with bacterial
membranes, causing structural damage and leakage
Gram-negative bacterial infections are among the leading of cellular contents, ultimately leading to cell death.
20
causes of both hospital-acquired and community-acquired Furthermore, metal-based nanoparticles can penetrate
infections, commonly seen in diseases such as septicemia, bacterial cells and interact with intracellular components –
tuberculosis, and pneumonia. Among the most prevalent including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids – disrupting
Gram-negative pathogens are Klebsiella pneumoniae essential cellular processes. These interactions may also
and Escherichia coli. These bacteria are responsible induce mutations and contribute to cell death due to their
1
for a wide range of infections affecting various body high surface area. 21
systems, including the gastrointestinal tract, renal system,
2-5
and central nervous system. Effective treatment of The antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles has
K. pneumoniae and E. coli infections is crucial, as delayed been extensively explored against a wide range of pathogenic
or inadequate treatment can result in severe complications bacteria, including E. coli and K. pneumonia. 22-26 Previous
and potentially fatal outcomes. Therefore, timely medical research has also examined the antibacterial effects of
intervention is critical to manage infections caused by silver nanoparticles synthesized using the extract from the
K. pneumoniae and E. coli. wings of carpenter bees (Xylocopa virginica) – hereafter
referred to as carpenter bee wings (CBWs) – against
Antibiotics represent one of the most impactful selected Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria.
24
medical innovations in modern history. Antibiotics – such These biosynthesized silver nanoparticles have been shown
as chloramphenicol, glycylcyclines, fluoroquinolones, to exert antibacterial effects by aggregating on bacterial cell
cephalosporins, and aminoglycosides – play a crucial role surfaces, potentially interacting with cellular components
in the treatment of K. pneumoniae and E. coli infections, in ways that lead to mutations. These findings raise
saving millions of lives worldwide. These drugs target important concerns about the long-term risk of bacterial
6-8
specific processes or structures within bacterial cells, adaptation or resistance in response to nanoparticle-based
thereby disrupting essential cellular functions. Depending antimicrobial strategies.
on their mechanism of action, antibiotics can exhibit
bacteriostatic effects (inhibiting bacterial growth) or However, the specific mutations associated with
bactericidal effects (killing bacteria). However, the biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles in Gram-
9,10
widespread and reckless use of antibiotics has significantly negative bacteria remain largely unexplored. This study
contributed to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. 11 hypothesizes that X. virginica wing extract can be
used to synthesize silver nanoparticles with improved
Gram-negative bacteria – including E. coli and
K. pneumonia – have developed multiple resistance antimicrobial activity and the potential to induce genetic
changes in target bacteria.
mechanisms against antibiotics. 12-14 One major defense is
their outer membrane, which acts as a barrier to hinder The findings from this study may provide valuable
antibiotic penetration. In addition, the production insights into the mechanisms by which biosynthesized
13
of β-lactamases confers resistance to a wide range of nanoparticles exert antimicrobial effects and how they
antibiotics, such as penicillin, cephalosporins, and may contribute to the development of bacterial resistance.
carbapenems. Resistance is further enhanced by In particular, identifying mutations in genes related to cell
15
mutations or deletions in porin proteins such as OmpK35 wall integrity, DNA repair, and stress response pathways
and OmpK36, which reduce the uptake of antimicrobial could help elucidate bacterial adaptation strategies.
agents. Bacterial resistance presents a major public health Understanding these mutations can guide the development
16
threat, leading to severe infections and is projected to of optimized nanoparticles with reduced potential to
contribute to approximately 10 million deaths annually induce resistance, thereby enhancing their effectiveness in
by 2050. This highlights the urgent need to explore healthcare and environmental applications.
17
innovative alternatives to traditional antibiotic treatments. This study aims to evaluate the in vitro antimicrobial
Nanoparticles emerge as a promising alternative to activity of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles produced
antibiotics for treating bacterial infections, largely due using X. virginica wing extract against two pathogenic
to their ability to overcome microbial drug resistance. Gram-negative bacterial strains, namely E. coli and
18
They exhibit antimicrobial activity by directly interacting K. pneumoniae. The morphology and size distribution
with and disrupting bacterial cell membranes through of the synthesized nanoparticles are characterized using
mechanisms such as physical penetration and generating spectroscopic analyses. In addition to assessing their
reactive oxygen species, ultimately leading to cell damage antibacterial activity, the study investigates the potential of
and death. 19 these biosynthesized silver nanoparticles to induce genetic

Volume 8 Issue 3 (2025) 72 doi: 10.36922/ITPS025080007