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Microbes & Immunity

REVIEW ARTICLE
Lung development, health, and diseases

Feranmi Emmanuel Obe * , Isaac Olamide Babalola 2 , Victor Abiodun
1
Adebiyi 2 , Ayomide Oreoluwa Adetoro 3 , Florence Inioluwa Omotoso 2 , and
Oluwafemi Rachel Alamu 2

1 Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, Texas,
United States of America
2 Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, Ladoke Akintola
University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria
3 Department of Nursing Science, Faculty of Nursing, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
Ogbomoso, Nigeria
(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Immune Responses to Pulmonary Infections)

Abstract
The lungs emerge from the foregut during the embryonic stage, and as they mature,
they go through additional morphological and functional changes that extend
into the postnatal stage of development. Each developmental stage of the lung is
tightly regulated by specific signaling pathways. Nkx2.1 signaling, which is essential
for lung specification, is improved by Wnt/β-catenin signaling but necessitates
*Corresponding authors:
Feranmi Emmanuel Obe active bone morphogenic protein signaling. Branching morphogenesis of the lungs
(obeferanmi1@gmail.com) requires fibroblast growth factor, while vascular endothelial growth factor signaling
promotes endothelial cell survival and capillary development. Disruption at any
Citation: Obe FE, Babalola IO,
Adebiyi VA, Adetoro AO, of these developmental stages can result in congenital lung disorders. Although
Omotoso FI, Alamu OR. Lung the lungs are quiescent in adulthood, they retain the capacity for regeneration in
development, health, and diseases. response to injury caused by infectious and non-infectious agents. Essentially, the
Microbes & Immunity.
2025;2(3):47-59. lung’s microbiota plays a role in maintaining lung health and disease. Treatment with
doi: 10.36922/mi.7719 probiotics has been established in many infectious lung diseases; however, further
Received: December 16, 2024 research is necessary to fully establish their therapeutic potential in treating these
conditions.
1st revised: March 18, 2025
2nd revised: April 10, 2025
Keywords: Development; Embryogenesis; Lungs; Regeneration; Signaling
3rd revised: April 21, 2025
Accepted: May 6, 2025
Published online: June 12, 2025 1. Introduction
Copyright: © 2025 Author(s).
This is an Open-Access article The development of the lungs is a complex and coordinated process that spans from
distributed under the terms of the embryogenesis to postnatal maturation. The process involves cellular differentiation
Creative Commons Attribution and tissue morphogenesis. Lung development begins at approximately 3 – 4 weeks
License, permitting distribution,
and reproduction in any medium, of gestation and evolves through six major developmental stages characterized by
provided the original work is structural and functional changes necessary for effective gas exchange. These stages
properly cited. include the embryonic stage, pseudoglandular stage, canalicular stage, saccular stage,
Publisher’s Note: AccScience alveolar stage, which begins just before birth and continues into the first few years of
Publishing remains neutral with life, and the microvascular stage. Each developmental stage is regulated by signaling
1
regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional that drives the functional and structural changes from embryogenesis to postnatal
affiliations. maturation.

Volume 2 Issue 3 (2025) 47 doi: 10.36922/mi.7719